JANUARY 2008
January 2008 brought the third year of a housing correction, the sixth month of a credit squeeze and "a dry forest" in the capital markets. Oh, to be 2005 again.
A consumer unit, which is policy wonkese for a household, spends over 60% of its income on housing, transportation and food. The unit was getting hit on all three fronts. The housing ATM was short of cash. A regular gallon of gas cost over $3.00 versus about $2.00 a year earlier and food cost more, too. The American family sat around the kitchen table of political myth eating food that was more expensive in a house that was losing value.
We could talk all we wanted about the one million new jobs created in 2007, higher exports, wages and GDP; no one was listening. It was also hard to be heard over the din and negative Bush-spin of the 2008 presidential primaries, which began with the Iowa Caucuses on January 3.
Hank told Newsweek on January 11 that the capital markets were like "a dry forest" and "It's very difficult to determine … the spark" that may set the forest afire. It was the theory of economic gravity again: Capital markets have turmoil every five to ten years. It had been almost ten years since the near-failure of the hedge fund Long Term Capital Management in 1998. So, unfortunately, we were kind of due.
Looking backward and forward, Treasury and the other members (the Federal Reserve, the SEC, and the CFTC) of the President's Working Group on Financial Markets (the PWG) had been working on contingency plans. They couldn't predict when or where the spark might land but they could shovel up and be ready to douse it.
Since a hedge fund had put the financial system at risk before, the PWG turned suspicious eyes in that direction. Hedge funds are private investment funds for wealthy and institutional investors that invest in lots of different stuff and not always in a friendly way. They usually earn a swell rate of return because they are highly leveraged, take greater risks that they then "hedge" (Eureka! hedge funds).
One example of a hedge is to go "long" on a stock, which is to buy and hold the stock betting it will go up in the long run. At the same time you "short" the same stock, which means you borrow—that is, never take possession of it but buy the right to sell the stock at a specific price in the future, even if the market price is lower. You can sell the stock back at $5 even though the market price is $4 and voilà, you make $1 when the offsetting trades settle. If you buy it long at $4 and it goes up to $5, you make a buck that way, too. This is a simple example; it's more complicated than this and there are lots more zeroes involved.
Every ten years or so there have been some spectacular hedge-fund flameouts, but that's all part of risk and reward, isn't it? Not only did hedge funds have a history of flame-outs and some unfriendly practices, they are private and unregulated. They were big, mysterious and guilty by association with those scary people known as "The Rich."
The first hedge fund was born in 1952 and was a rather simple beast that bought long and sold short. When this formula outperformed regular mutual funds, investors flocked to the idea. And as we're learning, one investment idea can spawn a gazillion other investment ideas and pretty soon the hedge fund industry was big-time and big-money, hedging in far more complicated ways with options, futures and derivatives.
At the end of 2006, there were about 9,000 hedge funds worldwide with assets of about $1.5 trillion; 60% were in the United States. This $1.5 trillion was miniscule compared to the estimated total $165 trillion of traded securities worldwide, but hedge funds were still considered arson suspect #1.
In 2007, the PWG had set guidelines for hedge, private equity and venture capital funds and formed two committees to develop best practices specifically for hedge funds. I always smiled at the term "best practices," as if anyone would want worst practices or not very good ones. Since hedge funds are private, the PWG had to coax, they couldn't force behavior. The PWG also was examining risks of other fancy products on the Cred-Mart shelves.
Now, leverage such as that practiced by hedge funds is important to you, me and financial wizards. And it will become more important later in our story of financial crisis, but now, Lucy, we've got some 'splaining to do (say that in your best Ricky Ricardo voice).
Let's live for a moment in a fantasy financial world with Stacy, my dog Eva and Catherine's cat, Spot. Stacy, Eva and Spot have each saved $250,000 cash; we each want to buy a house and to earn as high a return as we can from this cashola we've worked so hard to save.
I, being of a conservative mind, find a nice brick rambler and buy the $250,000 house with cashola. I invest all my money in the house. My only return is going to be the increased value of the house when I sell it, or I'll lose money if the house value drops. I don't have any debt, nor do I have any leverage.
Eva is conservative but wily; she makes a $50,000 down payment and borrows $200,000 to buy her house, a charming Cape Cod. She has $200,000 of her cashola left, owns a house worth $250,000 and owes the bank $200,000. She has borrowed and increased her $250,000 cashola into assets worth $450,000. She owes $200,000 but also has $200,000 in the bank: her leverage is 1:1. That's pretty safe (Eureka! leverage).
Then there's Spot. He's a cat, so he buys four houses worth $250,000 each. He makes four $50,000 down payments and buys assets worth $1 million. He's got $50,000 cash in the bank, but he has $800,000 in debt: he's leveraged 16:1. Spot might be called a speculator or insane. He can't make the payments on all those houses; he is betting that he can sell them quickly and make a profit. If he can't sell or the banks decide to revoke his credit, he'll face the great BK: bankruptcy. This example is about houses, but it holds true for stocks and other investments, too.
Now back to hedge funds and leverage. While we're here, let's talk about investment banks and leverage, too. These firms are more like Spot than like Eva or me: they thrived and made big profits with leverage. They kept some cash, and borrowed a lot more to buy stocks, bonds and other investments and to lend out to other wizards. They're experts (right) so they know how to manage for maximum return with minimal losses. But like Spot, if the asset values fall, they can't pay their debts or they can't borrow any more cashola, they have to sell assets pretty quickly and hope to avoid BK.
Some hedge funds and investment banks leveraged to 30:1 or more. That meant that when credit squeezed and asset values fell they had, say, $150 billion of debt and $5 billion of cashola. When the other investment and regular banks that had lent the cashola smelled trouble, they wanted their money back. Then the financial wizards had to sell assets, if they could, pretty quickly at whatever price they could in order to survive. Later on, that's one of the many things that happened: some survived, some didn't. That's also known as de-leveraging and when it happens fast and across the board, it's like shock treatment to the financial system.
In the olden days, investment banks couldn't have leverage above about 15:1 but the SEC changed that rule in 2004. After that investment banks could and did push their leverage much higher. But when the economic party was roaring, nobody was worrying.
I bring all this up here because it's what they call foreshadowing. If this were a mystery, leverage would be the stranger in a dark alley.
Back in real time, Hank made the speech we wrote over the holidays on January 7. The dozens and dozens of hours we spent carefully crafting 2,500 words were condensed into a few headlines, like "There is no single or simple solution" to address the housing market problems.
The Dow Jones wire did glean Hank's very big point about market failure:
Over the next two years, we also face an unprecedented wave of 1.8 million subprime mortgage resets, raising the potential of a market failure.
About this time Senator Chris Dodd, a man who knows his literary flourish, said at a press conference that the housing crisis was
…the equivalent of a slow-motion, 50-state Katrina, taking people's homes one-by-one, devastating their lives and destroying their communities.
Now, imagine how you might have reacted to a pronouncement like this. "Well, gee, Senator, I know house values have dropped some, but I didn't think my life was in danger."
The Christian tradition asks us to abide, even in times of devastation, in faith, hope and charity; contrast that with a modern media tradition that encourages us to abide in fear, despair and class warfare. There wasn't a problem the three P's—press, pundits and politicians—didn't describe with metaphors of gloom and predictions of doom. Not that the trends were good, but unemployment was still low at 5%. Yet, in their quest to be the Big Noise, the three P's beat us down until only fools or madmen believed we could climb back up the sure, steady American path.
Although the credit markets were still impaired, which I suppose is what happens when you're fragile, Hank's January 7 speech noted that the credit squeeze had loosened some since the summer. The speech also included a paragraph to remind everyone that we'd been here before:
I have great confidence in our markets. They have weathered similar stressful periods in the past—whether it was the Savings & Loan crisis, Latin American and Asian market turbulence or the tech bubble of the late 1990s. The private and public sectors responded and worked through these difficult periods. Markets recovered then, and they will again.
The supernatural tan man Angelo Mozilo enjoyed a recovery of sorts when Bank of America purchased Countrywide Mortgage in early January. They bought Countrywide's $1.5 trillion portfolio of about nine million loans but did note that they wouldn't be doing new subprime loans. Ahem.
Since July the Fed had been adjusting the money supply (Eureka! monetary policy) through the special Cred-Mart programs and lower interest rates. It did more now, cutting the fed funds rate by 0.75% on January 22 and by another 0.50% on January 30. When the credit squeeze began in August 2007 fed funds had been 5.25%; by the end of January 2008 it was down to 3%.
Even so, you were worried. Washington worries when you worry. When Washington worries, it looks for programs or money to make the worry go away. So President Bush announced in early January that the government would spend money and reduce some taxes (Eureka! fiscal policy) to smooth out the bumpy economic road.
Hank became the point man to negotiate the "economic growth package" with Congress, and to do it soon. We were told not to call it a stimulus bill, and to use the fancy words "economic growth package" instead. While in some cases you can change the words to pretend you've changed the substance, like we are now supposed to worry about climate change rather than global warming, in this case it didn't work. It was what it was: a stimulus bill.
On January 18, Hank and the Chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisors, Ed Lazear, briefed the White House press. Hank was used to the calm, fairly polite group of reporters that covered Treasury; this national press was a horde perched in rows of chairs, shouting questions and interruptions in the small, windowless White House Press Briefing Room.
A stimulus is usually used as an economic rocket-boost in the middle of a recession. Some economists said we were acting too soon. After all, December unemployment was at 5% and GDP was still growing, although not by much. The reality was summed up by Lazear in a phrase he and Hank would use again and again, "The risks are on the downside."
Hank explained that they were being pre-emptive; he wanted to challenge the notion that government usually acts too late when there's trouble, if it acts at all. As he told Roll Call on February 11,
I also believe that the kinds of benefits that we saw from the tax relief in '01 and '03 made a very significant difference to the growth and competitiveness of our economy. And I saw that real-time when I was on Wall Street and looked at economic activity … and looked at the way the market responded to those tax packages.
Although negotiations with Congress weren't finished, the stimulus was widely expected to be a mix of individual tax rebates and incentives for business investment similar to the stimulus bills of 2001 and 2003. Hank cautioned that there wasn't even agreement on what the bill would look like yet. But the reporters wanted to know when, when, when people would get their money. Snap, snap, let's get this done.
He finally told them,
And … I can tell you, when we get the legislation, we're going to run like a bunny here to get the relief out.
The vision of Hank, or anyone at Treasury, running like bunnies tickled me; the quote did sum up, in some ways, the ducking and weaving needed to escape the coyotes on our trail.
The Democrats came up with a spiffy slogan, that the stimulus should be "timely, targeted and temporary." Our slogan was less catchy: "swift, robust, broad-based and temporary." I told you that robust was a favorite Treasury word.
By using "broad-based" versus "targeted," we were saying let's avoid a bill full of special gifts and special programs, a.k.a. the Christmas tree of legislative nirvana. As Hank said in a January 22 speech at the U.S. Chamber,
It must be broad-based. To be effective, the package must reach a large number of citizens. To move quickly through the legislative process, we should keep this proposal simple. Debates over favorite programs will inevitably bog down the process. We want to act in time to help families get through a tough economic time.
A funny thing happened on the way to this paragraph. One sticking point in the negotiations was the Democrat's insistence that if there was a tax rebate, it should also go to people who hadn't paid taxes. The White House objected. Now, setting aside the fact that you can't rebate something that's never been paid, I wasn't thinking about that at all as I wrote "reach a large number of citizens" to define our broad base. I normally would have used "a large number of people."
But I have this quirk: I think people is overused, as in "the American people want" or "the American people understand," as if we are a mass of simpletons incapable of independent thoughts. So instead of people, I used citizens. It was just a synonym. But I sat at my computer that afternoon and read multiple press stories alleging that Hank used the word "citizens" to signal that he disagreed with the President and wanted to rebate taxes to those who didn't pay taxes. The speech had been read and cleared; no one had interpreted it that way. I jumped out of my chair and sprinted as much as it was possible to sprint while wearing high heels on waxed marble floors to Michele's office to explain, to plead guilty, to avert a national incident.
Michele, totally unfazed, smiled at my panic and said not to worry, "They're giving us way too much credit for intrigue."
I guess I could have felt the power of swaying world events through a single word; instead I was mortified. After that everyone was a people, never a citizen.
As a reporter noted at the January 18 press briefing there was an unusual love fest between the Democratic Congress and the Republican Administration and the final stimulus agreement was reached on January 24. We compromised, and the rebates also went to those who did not pay taxes.
The Colonel was outraged. He screamed (in email) about wealth redistribution and that these rebates hadn't worked in the past and wouldn't work now, either. I countered that the Office of Economic Policy had statistics to prove that direct rebates did work, but for every statistic I had, there was another that said the opposite.
This was the first time the government spent real money, $150 billion, to try to dig us out of the early mess. It seemed like a lot. It also didn't seem like so much, either, about 1% of GDP. I had no idea. It would have been preferable to pass long-term, permanent tax cuts, but tax cuts helped those who actually paid taxes, evil corporations and The Rich. Given the entrenched political divide and that Democrats had the congressional majority, tax cuts were a non-starter.
As Hank told the interviewer Charlie Rose on January 30,
There's no doubt that the most important things we could do for our economy over the intermediate and the longer term are major strategic initiatives. Keeping taxes low, major initiatives in the trade area, for instance. So it's balancing … we're not going to get something like that done this year, and if we do they've got to be on a separate track.
A snarky New York Times claimed the Senate had to "make the plan politically palatable to Republicans who reflexively demand tax cuts for the rich." The Times also criticized the GOP for sticking to ideological principles, while The Wall Street Journal criticized the GOP for abandoning ideological principles.
The fabulous British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said it well:
To me, consensus seems to be the process of abandoning all beliefs, principles, values and policies. So it is something in which no one believes and to which no one objects.
Fortunately or unfortunately, the stimulus bill and all the other legislation passed to "fix" our financial crisis required consensus. It's one of the downfalls of a democratic process, don't you know.
As banks reported their 2007 fourth quarter earnings, the risks were, very clearly, to the downside. Citigroup reported an almost $10 billion loss, mainly from writing down $18 billion in subprime-related mortgages. JPMorgan Chase cut the value of its investments in the U.S. subprime market by over $1 billion. Merrill Lynch had a $14 billion swing to a $8 billion loss due to subprime mortgage investment write-downs. Lehman Brothers reported a $4 billion annual profit for their 2007 year-end as of November, but they planned to cut 1,300 more jobs on top of 2,500 already cut due to subprime lending problems.
As we already learned, Bear Stearns lost hundreds of millions of dollars and on January 9 its CEO and Chairman, Jimmy Cayne, became the third Wall Street CEO to lose his job because of MBS woes, although he did stay on as Chairman.
Hank's January 7 speech said this about our big banks:
As markets reassess, we should not be surprised or disappointed to see financial institutions writing down assets and strengthening balance sheets. This is market discipline in action and should enhance market confidence over time. One thing I have learned over my career is that if a financial institution needs capital, it should move quickly to raise it. Moving to strengthen balance sheets better prepares financial institutions to exploit new opportunities and confront inevitable challenges.
We have seen positive developments in this regard. During the second half of 2007, financial institutions raised $83 billion of equity, a more than 20 percent increase from the same period in 2006. Some may be concerned that much of this financing came from overseas investors; I am not. When the world invests in the United States, it is the ultimate vote of long-term confidence in our economy and our companies.
FEBRUARY 2008
Just in time for Valentine's Day, the love fest produced an offspring: President Bush signed the Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 on February 13. It included payments to 130 million Americans, business investment incentives and a few gifts for Fannie and Freddie to help ease the housing troubles.
We still had problems with both the chicken and the egg. Because of the credit squeeze and housing correction, homes weren't selling, it was hard to refinance or get a new mortgage and housing prices weren't rebounding. So, the stimulus bill included a compromise to increase Fannie and Freddie's "conforming loan limit." In exchange, Congress promised that it would—really, they meant it—complete GSE Reform. Until this change, Fannie or Freddie couldn't purchase mortgages above $417,000; that limit was temporarily raised, by a formula, to a maximum of $730,000.
With every new authority to the GSEs, housing finance was turning more firmly into a government business. Since the banks still held trillions of those troubled and toxic MBS, the only mortgage securitization markets really working—the markets we needed to fuel new mortgages and refinancings—were through the GSE MBS we found so fascinating in Chapter 2.
Securitization, overall, continued to contract, which meant less consumer credit, but by now our national spending spree was coming to an end anyway.
There were also problems with something called the monolines; companies that started out insuring municipal bonds and then branched out—bingo!—into insuring MBS. This whole insurance business got a little too technical even for me, but suffice to say there was stuff going on here that added to the squeeze.
Oil had climbed to over $100 a barrel and gasoline prices climbed up right alongside. The Cred-Mart and housing spillover began, and Hank said the problems were "now much more about the U.S. economy than the capital markets." The housing correction that started on Main Street had infected Wall Street and was reinfecting Main Street.
Everybody started to talk about economic "headwinds;" The Wall Street Journal wrote a front-page story about that one word. Hank had used it and I couldn't find a better synonym. We even used "trio of headwinds," as in credit squeeze, rising energy and food prices, but I'm not sure that was meteorologically possible.
Some economists were warning that a serious global recession was possible. Recall in the draft Davos remarks we talked about multipolarity, the theory that economic power was dispersing beyond the United States and Western Europe; this was also called "decoupling." It used to be said that when the United States sneezed, the world caught a cold. During the boom there was talk that this was no longer true, that world economies had "decoupled" from the United States. Decoupling is policy wonkese for "Let's be friends," which is usually code for "I don't want to see you anymore." But try as it might, the world can't break up with the United States, nor can the United States break up with the world.
Throughout interviews with CNBC, Roll Call and National Journal, Hank said that the world had indeed changed since the last credit turmoil:
We are going to be dealing with levels of complexity and financial products we have not seen before with a much greater degree of global integration.
That reminds me of a pandering, but true, phrase, "Globalization and interdependence are here to stay."
Decoupling was probably disproved for good on February 22 when the British government nationalized Northern Rock, which had been reeling under U.S. subprime losses and had received a £2.5 billion rescue in September 2007. Northern Rock was the second casualty of the housing and subprime crisis; the first had been Germany's IKB Deutsche Industriebank in July 2007.
But we can't blame all the world's financial problems on ourselves, the ugly Americans. The UK had its own subprime lending boom and subsequent "repossessions," British English for foreclosures. The sea of liquidity and yearn-for-yield had washed all over the world, and as the tide went out we saw that financial wizards from Europe to Asia to Russia had also been swimming naked (to paraphrase Warren Buffett).
Hank kept working on foreclosure problems. On February 12 he joined HOPE NOW when they announced "Project Lifeline." It was another scintillating Treasury press conference, held in our version of the White House Press Room, the fourth floor Media Room. Hank spoke from the podium against a backdrop of precisely folded flags in front of a deep blue curtain. Men and women in suits from six chagrinned mortgage servicers stood in a semicircle behind him.
Hank and the chagrinned announced that servicers would begin reaching out to all homeowners who were 90 days late, not just subprime borrowers. By the time you've missed three payments, you've usually bought a ticket to foreclosure.
As HOPE NOW did its work, Fed interest rate reductions helped the prime rate drop from 8.25% to 6% between September 2007 and February 2008. This should have helped more homeowners avoid foreclosure because, even as their interest rate jumped up after the teaser period, the jump was from a lower starting point. It helped some, but not nearly enough.
The PWG examination of markets and products was coming to a close, as was Treasury's financial system regulatory review; we would release both reports in March and were already drafting these blockbuster speeches. Hank started to talk about this in interviews, because wasn't everybody waiting on the edge of their seat? Actually, some were: It was the beginning of the financial regulatory reform debate that would last long beyond our time.
Fingers of blame about the subprime problems were already pointing, and the first target was the so-called Bush era of laissez-faire regulation. How handy then that Treasury and the PWG had been examining regulatory problems for over a year.
On February 14, Hank, Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke and SEC Chairman Chris Cox testified before the Senate Banking Committee on "The State of the Economy." Senate committee hearing rooms are similar to House Committee rooms: Senators sit atop a raised dais scowling down at the witnesses below. But to Senate Banking Committee Chairman Chris Dodd, the Senate room was much more:
This is a historic room, of course. … There have been many historic hearings that have been held in this room. I remember as a child being here watching my father actually chair hearings on the violence in television, back in the late 1950s, early 1960s.
President Kennedy and Robert Kennedy announced their candidacies for the presidency in this room. The Watergate hearings, Teapot Dome, Army-McCarthy hearings. This is a historic room, so maybe some historic suggestions this morning here from our witnesses might be an appropriate response.
So, in addition to metaphors of gloom and predictions of doom, we had reminders that we were in a very historic room.
Hank's opening statement used the familiar "reassess and re-price risk" and "risks to the downside" phrases, touted the stimulus as help to "weather the housing downturn," and asked again for final passage of FHA Reform and that GSE Reform bill.
Congressional hearings, whether in the House or Senate, have predictable plots. In some ways, they are like West Side Story, except for the singing, dancing and reconciliation. In the "best" hearings there is rhetorical bloodshed. Instead of the Sharks and the Jets, the rival gangs are the Democrats and the Republicans. The main characters, called the protagonists in literature but antagonists here, are the good guys, a.k.a. the elected officials. The bad guys are the witnesses, preferably members of the rival gang. That's what Hank and Ben and Chairman Cox were, at this hearing and many more to come. The bad guys have never done enough, always need to do more, yet what they have done already was probably wrong.
If you think I am cynical about Congress, you are perceptive. I worked for the House of Representatives for six years. I saw the good intentions and the grandstanding, and the sharp fault lines between what the parties believe. Few politicians have a background in financial markets and throughout the crisis I wondered how many really understood the history, causes or solutions. Congress is a valuable institution, as perfect and as flawed as you and I. But committee hearings are mostly theater, with little in-depth discussion and few grand breakthroughs. Instead of Ah ha! the goal is Gotcha!
At this hearing, the good guys told the bad guys that they needed to do more to stop foreclosures and shore up the economy. The bad guys said they weren't so bad at all, explained what they had done and that, of course, they would do more.
Senator Menendez said, "I don't want to talk down the economy," and then went through a litany of our problems.
Hank gave a quick retort, a rare public display of the frustration we saw privately, and said, "If you are trying to talk the economy up, I'd hate to see you try to talk it down."
Employment fell by 63,000 jobs in February, but the unemployment rate fell to 4.8%. How can there be fewer jobs but lower unemployment? When people stop looking for work, even though they're still unemployed they disappear from the statistics. It also has something to do with factors that make sense to economists and statisticians, but suffice it to say that employment was going in the wrong direction.
The numbers and statistics dazzled, were often disputed, but they also told interesting stories.
Take American International Group, which we know better by its acronym, AIG. In February, AIG announced that it wrote down over $11 billion in credit default swaps in the fourth quarter of 2007 and held another $78 billion more. The $150 billion stimulus package for the entire economy seemed miniscule compared to $78 billion of derivatives held by one company. But the stimulus was real money. As AIG would prove, there was a whole lot of trouble waiting for us in the Cred-Mart credit default swap aisle. Let me 'splain.
You probably have home, car or health insurance. In exchange for paying premiums, you have the assurance (insurance) that your insurance company will pay at least some portion of your claims.
Financial risk insurance is somewhat similar and has been around for a long time, to insure against interest rate or commodity price changes and corporate debt default, for example. In theory, credit insurance is the assurance that a bank or investor that lends money (Eureka! creditor) has insurance against default; if the company doesn't pay its loan, the "insurer" will pay the creditor in its place.
The creditor buys insurance that swaps (sells) the risk of credit default to an "insurer" like AIG (Eureka! credit default swaps [CDS]).
In the late 1990s, this quasi-insurance flourished in ways my literary style never could. As the economy roared again from 2003 to 2007, swapping credit default risk seemed pretty safe. Banks bought insurance for outstanding loans, which freed up more capital to make more loans. Investment banks bought and sold this credit risk insurance, too.
Ahh, then the financial wizards had a brilliant idea. If bank loans could be insured, why couldn't those boxes of chocolates, the whole, sliced and diced MBS, CDOs and CMOs be insured as well? Everyone likes chocolate, right? Everyone will pay their mortgages, right?
AIG was one of the wizards that sold CDS, credit default swaps, on fancy concoctions. In fact, AIG became the supreme wizard. The investment banks also sold these types of CDS. Then the regular banks realized they were wizards and could sell and buy CDS too.
The wizards took risk and then made it vanish with the wave of a CDS wand. They were paid a profitable stream of premiums and never expected a single claim, because the economy was so strong and it would never go down, would it? They couldn't lose money. Risk and credit and promises were swapped like spit at an un-chaperoned high school party.
Wall Street created a Magic Kingdom, a kingdom of reward without risk.
CDS were even more magical, still. Although I've compared CDS to insurance, they were very different in a very important way. When a company insures your house or car, there are grumpy regulators that require the insurance company to keep some capital in reserve so that when you make a claim they can pay it, a lot like the capital requirements for banks. But credit default swaps really weren't insurance; they were financial contracts whose value is derived from the underlying asset (Eureka! derivatives).
They were swapping away risk on fancy boxes of concoctions with the blessing of investment-grade, that is, high, ratings from credit ratings agencies even though nobody really knew what was inside. It was sort of like insuring Cheez Whiz because there must be some cheese in there somewhere.
There was no grumpy regulator to require the wizards keep sufficient reserves to pay CDS claims. If there had been, likely we wouldn't have seen the CDS market explode from $100 billion in 2000 to $65 trillion by the fall of 2008. Yes, that's a 650% increase in seven years, to $65 trillion with a capital T. For fun, let's compare. In the fall of 2008, the U.S. stock market was valued at $22 trillion, the mortgage market was $7.1 trillion and, as we already know, U.S. GDP was $14 trillion.
You can't make this stuff up. Oh wait, yes you can.
The banks, firms, and companies that bought and sold derivatives are called (Eureka! counterparties), that is, they are parties to a contract. With $65 trillion worth of swaps around the world, there were a lot of counterparties relying on other counterparties to pay claims. I'm foreshadowing, again: you already know that AIG becomes, uh, rather important later on in our story.
Fancy terms like derivatives, counterparties and credit default swaps are why finance seems complicated. But it's like sports; it just has its own vocabulary. My dad and my brothers share two favorite things: NASCAR and golf. And I have learned enough about drafting, banking, birdies and putts that if I don't have to talk for long, I sound like I know what I'm talking about.
The AIG $11 billion CDS write-down was the point of another knife that would cut much deeper, or, as Warren Buffett called CDS in 2002, the time bomb of "financial weapons of mass destruction." He compared the derivatives business to "hell…easy to enter and almost impossible to exit." We would enter that hell soon enough.
Contrary to the fingers pointing blame at Bush's so-called laissez-faire regulation, there were multiple regulatory geniuses with authority and responsibility to spot the troubles at AIG. They didn't do their job, as they would admit later, after the boxes of concoctions and derivatives melted and the Fed, you and me lent AIG over $150 billion.
In a mid-February interview, Steve Liesman of CNBC asked Hank if he was at the point where he thought, "the government has to step in … and do more to restore confidence to the credit and equity markets?"
Hank answered, "Absolutely not … we're making progress as we work through this."
At the time, it was more true than not. LIBOR rates had dropped, a sign of interbank confidence, from well above 5% in mid-2007 to closer to 3%. The economic stimulus had been signed and bunnies were running to send about $100 billion to American households, which was also going to help. Housing was still correcting, but less than 2% of homes were in foreclosure and 93% of Americans kept paying their mortgages every month, right on time. The Dow had dropped since the beginning of the year, which was not surprising given lack of confidence, but was still above 12,000. Our friend the TED spread was slimming down to near or below 1% again. It was going to take, as Hank said, "Additional time to work through this period of stress and volatility."
But in late February, fear brought new problems in short-term debt markets for state and municipal bonds. News headlines introduced us to another product of financial wizardry: auction-rate securities.
These "structured finance vehicles," that is, a vehicle made of paper, not something you'd drive on a highway, were long-term debt issued by states and cities and other credit-worthy organizations (at least they were then) at short-term rates. Until the deepening drought of confidence sent rates so high that this $300 billion market essentially froze, there had been weekly auctions where the securities were bought and sold (Eureka! auction rate securities [ARS]).
But now the auctions failed, investors couldn't get their money back. Even an amateur investor like me had money in ARS and no idea what they were until I needed to sell one and couldn't. Multiply that by thousands of other people and companies: illiquid and stuck.
This was another spark in the forest, a signal, as Hank said throughout the year, that "markets weren't functioning as normal."
Markets that had traded on risk with glee had become very risk-averse. Neither extreme was healthy.
As the housing correction kept correcting across the land, falling home prices put more homeowners underwater. Some in Congress started to suggest that something should be done to help these poor people, too—people like me! That was stunning; investments go underwater all the time. Since when was it government's job to guarantee that my house would always be worth what I owed on it?
At the Economic Club of Chicago on February 28, Hank said,
Being " underwater" when you can afford your mortgage does not affect your ability to pay your mortgage. Homeowners who can afford their mortgage should honor their obligations. And nearly all do.
As Hank spoke about homeowners "honoring obligations" the Senate debated legislation to prevent foreclosures. The FHA Reform bill still wasn't finished and the GSE Reform bill was still waiting for Senate action.
Because 2008 was a leap year, we had one extra February day before March came in like a lamb and then turned into a month of lions, tigers and Bear, oh my.
CHAPTER 5: WHEW, THAT WAS CLOSE
MARCH 2008
What happened this March—the run on the investment bank Bear Stearns that ended in a hasty marriage to JPMorgan Chase with a dowry from the Federal Reserve—wasn't because of a singular, precipitating event. Rumors, uncertainty and fear wound the financial system tighter and tighter until Jack had to pop out of the box somewhere. And so he did.
But before Wall Street: Survivor debuted in real time, Hank testified before Congress about the 2009 budget, made a trip to California and spoke about yes, again, housing and mortgage markets. Recall Neel, our rocket scientist turned foreclosure maven? He wanted to structure the speech with the conclusions first. The vast office of speechwriting resisted.
Usually, a policy speech follows a trajectory—you say hello and how glad you are to be wherever you are. Next, in your best policy wonkese you present statistics, facts and describe problems. Then you outline your recommendations to fix those problems with lots of "musts," "shoulds" and "needs." Often, you number and present them as: First, we must. … Second, we should. … Third, we need.
Hank had a dozen speeches and remarks scheduled in March, including the two regulatory reform blockbusters on the 13th and 31st. I was busy and after my citizen versus people incident was like many investors: risk averse. I stood in Neel's office with my arms folded across my chest, arguing against his proposed structure mostly because "that's not how we do it," as if with a nanosecond of experience I was the omnipotent voice of all speechwriting rules. I don't know if I overcame my stubborn pride or if I just gave in; either way, we tried it.
Hank's speech on March 3 to the National Association of Business Economists started with these three conclusions:
First, many in Washington and many financial institutions have been floating proposals for a major government intervention in the housing market, with U.S. taxpayers assuming the costs of the riskiest mortgages. … Most of the proposals I've seen would do more harm than good—bailing out investors, lenders or speculators who, instead of getting a free-pass, should be accountable for the risks they took. Let me be clear: I oppose any bailout. I believe our efforts are best focused on helping homeowners who want to stay in their homes.
Second, this is a shared responsibility of industry, government and homeowners. … There is more that government and industry can do, and our efforts will continue to evolve. Homeowners have responsibilities as well. If borrowers won't ask about solutions, there is only so much that can be done on their behalf.
Third, the current public discussion often conflates the number of so-called "underwater" homeowners—that is, those with mortgages greater than the value of their house—with projections of foreclosures. Let's be precise: being underwater does not affect your ability to pay your mortgage, nor create a government responsibility for assistance. Homeowners who can afford their mortgage should honor their obligations—and most do.
Note we've seen some of this language or its Irish twin before. Once we had put together phrases or sentences that worked we repeated them; this was the highly demanding cut-and-paste part of my job. Michele said consistency was more important than creativity. Needless to say, I agreed.
Our recitation of familiar troubles—declining home values and rising subprime mortgage foreclosures—followed the conclusions. The factoids included:
Existing single-family home sales fell to a 10-year low in January. At current sales rates there is now a 10.1 month supply of existing homes on the market, as compared to 4.5 months worth of inventory in a more normal market.
Similarly, new January data reported a 9.9 month supply of new homes currently on the market, more than twice the average supply during the first half of this decade.
We tried to put the housing correction in perspective, though, because the declines weren't the same everywhere. Arizona, California, Florida and Nevada had the most fun during the housing party and had the biggest hangover now. This included my proud hometown of Bakersfield, California:
Of course, there is no national housing market, but instead a compilation of regional markets. The housing correction, and the run up to the correction, unfolded differently in different regions.
In recent years, many markets witnessed steep home price appreciation that was clearly unsustainable. For example, from 2002 to 2006, home prices in Bakersfield, California rose 122 percent. During that same time frame, prices rose 94 percent in Las Vegas, Nevada, and 107 percent in Miami, Florida. Not surprisingly, many areas that saw the biggest price increases are now seeing the biggest price declines.
Many members of my far-flung family live in Bakersfield and when the economists gave me these stats, I gulped. Couldn't they use Riverside or Stockton? I used to drive that death-defying Chevy Vega through farmland, farmland since replaced by street after street of suburban stucco homes. Housing prices in Los Angeles County, about 50 miles south, had risen so high people moved to Bakersfield where they could afford homes and then they drove for hours to their jobs in LA County. As a bonus, they got Kern County's Grapes of Wrath history, a fine country-western music tradition and winter tule fog thick enough to hide the hound of the Baskervilles.
Housing market troubles continued to erode confidence in the chocolate box manufacturers, the banks like Bear Stearns that practiced grand MBS wizardry. After those two subprime mortgage hedge funds failed in July 2007, Bear had to do some mighty 'splaining and convincing to keep its investors, clients and credit lines. The SEC had checked in too; Bear passed scrutiny and recovered.
Some had thought, hedge fund failures aside, that Bear Stearns was perhaps the wiliest of wizards in navigating the turmoil. Alas, on March 6, Moody's downgraded some MBS issued by a Bear affiliate and Bear's stock fell below $70 from a high of over $130 in October. Banks that supported Bear Stearns' leverage began to withdraw credit lines. By Monday, March 10, rumors that Bear Stearns was having its own special liquidity squeeze began to take a significant toll.
We've learned that the SEC had removed the cap on investment bank leverage in 2004; in late 2007 Bear Stearns' leverage was about 33:1. They had about $11 billion in tangible equity and about $330 billion in debt. Banks had been thriving with leverage like you and I thrived, for awhile, with really high mortgage and consumer debt. It let us buy lots of stuff with very little capital. Banks invested in lots of stuff with little capital, too, and this brought big profits. While it's not the most prudent way to build a stable future, it kind of works as long as the investments keep their value and there is a steady supply of credit.
But rumors about Bear flew during the four long days of March 10–13 and Bear's creditors, clients and counterparties got nervous, pulled out money and ran to the exits.
If you drive by your bank and see a line of worried customers waiting to withdraw their cashola, will you just drive on by? Nope, I bet you'll park your car and get in line, too. Maybe nobody in line knows exactly what is going on, but why take the chance and lose your money? The Bear wizards told everyone waiting in line to go home: Bear had plenty of liquidity. While that might have been true on Monday, it was less true as the rumors swirled and the money fled on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday.
This became especially perilous in the "repo" aisle at Cred-Mart. Regular banks' primary source of funds are fairly stable "retail" checking and savings account deposits from you and me, but investment banks don't take deposits. They rely on "wholesale" markets; these are the layers of financial wizardry we don't see and are vital to a healthy Cred-Mart.
Investment banks borrowed (there's our friend leverage again) money short term in the $4.5 trillion repurchase agreement, a.k.a. "repo" market, and short-term money can be very volatile. The money is often lent overnight, so every day while we're buttering our morning bagel somebody's up pretty early settling debts from the night before. For you and me, it would be like having to renew our mortgage or car loans every day.
They're called repurchase agreements because banks, dealers and investors borrow cash by pledging a security as collateral and at the same time they agree to repurchase the same security at the end of the loan term (Eureka! repurchase agreement [repo]).
Repos offer a low-risk, flexible, short-term supply of credit to banks and "primary dealers" in government securities. Stick with me here, because primary dealers are important to our story. If a bank, investment bank or brokerage firm meets certain requirements the Federal Reserve can designate it a primary dealer, which means it can buy and sell government securities like Treasury bills, Treasury bonds or those GSE MBS from Fannie and Freddie (Eureka! primary dealers).
Over time, the repo market also grew to trading in other types of securities, with pension and hedge funds and state and local governments borrowing and selling daily. Then when you and I, Main Street investors, began investing in money market mutual funds—where we earned higher interest on balances than in regular bank checking accounts—those funds also became a big source of repo loans. Don't worry; all was well. Money market mutual funds made short-term loans against low-risk collateral with lots of flexibility and liquidity. And, at least until later in our story, a buck ($1) invested in a money market fund was always worth a buck or more. If it were to fall below that value, it would be called "breaking the buck."
Repos are sweet grease that turns our economic wheel when there's trust and confidence. But if a major repo participant and investment bank like, say Bear Stearns, might collapse, then shock, dismay and fear could wreak havoc. We would see this in September—when another investment bank like, say Lehman Brothers, did collapse.
The lack-of-liquidity rumors also struck fear in the heart of Bear's estimated 5,000 derivative counterparties, those parties to credit default swaps, interest rate swaps, the you-name-it fancy contracts. And those 5,000 counterparties had thousands of other counterparties. If Bear failed all the risk that the wizards had paid to swap away would come home, but because of the swapping and counter-swapping it could take weeks to figure out where home was. Meanwhile, Cred-Mart could go from squeeze to freeze and only worsen an already difficult housing correction, which as we recall was the first source of our troubles.
Any story about money and power must have a brief sideshow of sex, right? On Wednesday morning, March 12, Bear's CEO Alan Schwartz appeared on CNBC, where wizards and politicians often go to make financial news, to reassure the fleeing crowd. New York Governor Eliot Spitzer interrupted. Seems Spitzer had put his business where it didn't belong and was going to resign for patronizing prostitutes. Eventually, Schwartz got to make his case but it wasn't how he, or probably Spitzer, had planned his morning.
Oh, and to add to the turmoil, a couple of major hedge funds failed in February and early March. The most notable was a $22 billion mortgage investment fund operated by an affiliate of what had been considered an invincible wizard, the Carlyle Group.
To use a phrase widely quoted in 2008, the chickens were coming home to roost. Chickens have been coming home to roost, by the way, since the 14th century when Chaucer wrote, "And ofte tyme swich cursynge wrongfully retorneth agayn to hym that curseth, as a bryd that retorneth agayn to his owene nest." The English poet Robert Southey usually gets the credit from his 1810 poem "The Curse of Kehama:" Curses are like young chickens; they always come home to roost.
By Thursday night March 13, Bear had lost billions in cash, credit lines, clients and confidence and didn't see any way out but BK (bankruptcy). So they called the New York Federal Reserve Bank to let them know—Timothy Geithner, the New York Fed President, answered the phone. Meanwhile, Bear's CEO also called the CEO of JPMorgan Chase to see if perhaps they could make a deal.
The prospect of Bear Stearns filing BK was not pretty. Investment banks have failed before, but not in the midst of a worldwide credit squeeze with crazy-high leverage and a tangled web of derivatives and counterparties. So early in the morning of Friday, March 14, the Fed and JPMorgan Chase swooped in with a loan to prevent a Bear BK at least for the day.
This weekend begins the shotgun and dowry saga of the JPMorgan Chase–Bear Stearns marriage. Remember the discount window, which we learned was like a special Cred-Mart at the Federal Reserve just for regulated "regular" banks? These are the banks that in exchange for FDIC deposit insurance must follow various regulations. A regular bank like JPMorgan Chase could've put up some collateral and borrowed at the discount window to get through a liquidity squeeze.
But Bear Stearns was an investment bank and couldn't borrow at the discount window (not yet, anyway). But JPMorgan Chase could. So to prevent a—surprise!—bankruptcy the Fed lent JPMorgan $30 billion against Bear Stearns's collateral and JPMorgan passed the money through to Bear on this Friday, March 14.
Bear avoided BK and now had a 28-day loan. They thought they'd have those 28 days to regain their footing but seriously, who was going to come back and do business with them again? Nervous panic spread and Hank heard from far and wide over the weekend that nobody could bear the uncertainty; all those counterparties and fancy contracts would come unraveled and the fear would spread to other banks. There seemed a real and scary prospect of failures rippling through the financial system, one after another, then another and another or, as it's called in policy wonkese (Eureka! a systemic event).
We can get mad as hell at the wizards, for all the good blind anger does, but the financial system is to our economy what the electrical grid is to power. We can imagine if the power grid froze and we lost electricity nationwide: no hot water, no refrigeration, no television and screaming and finger pointing at the stupid power company.
A frozen financial grid would be just as bad. States couldn't issue the bonds that raise the money to build schools and roads and pay welfare benefits. Businesses that make and service stuff would suddenly lose their credit lines. The suppliers, like the farmers and the manufacturers, would only accept cash payments, and that would mean less food on the shelves, maybe no aspirin to ease the crick in your neck from all that anger. Even strong banks couldn't access financial markets—there'd be no market to access—so when you weren't foraging for food you'd be standing in line hoping to pull your money of your bank. You might have plenty of time to wait because your employer who used to draw on a line of credit to meet payroll couldn't pay you, so there'd you be, unemployed and waiting in line.
Our economy needs credit, just as our homes need electricity. This was the economic mayhem feared first this month and then again in September.
So, like stern fathers from the 'holler, Hank and Ben got out a shotgun and on Sunday, March 16, Bear sold itself to JPMorgan Chase for $2 a share, a $236 million price for a firm whose market value was over $3 billion two days earlier. And like fathers from the Main Line, they offered a $29 billion dowry, a long-term loan against Bear Stearns' collateral, to close the sale.
Why not let Bear Stearns go BK? It was only one bank and not the biggest one, by far. Here's why. When a regular bank with FDIC insurance is in danger, it doesn't file BK. Instead, the FDIC has a swift, efficient process for placing the bank in "receivership." The FDIC comes in, usually over a weekend, and takes over the bank's operations. The bank reopens for business under FDIC control, your insured deposits are safe and the FDIC hopefully finds someone to buy the bank. The FDIC does this for troubled, regular banks all the time. But there's nothing like this for non-FDIC banks, i.e. investment banks, even though they are an integral part of the financial grid.
Investment banks file normal bankruptcy like other companies. Everything that bank owns and owes is frozen while a judge unwinds or restructures it all. No big deal, except investment banks settle contracts, agreements and payments in immediate, continual overlapping, offsetting and interwoven transactions (Eureka! interconnected). And in Bear's case, all those tangled transactions would be suspended in mid-air. Since we are amateur wizards who understand economic gravity, we know that couldn't last for long. Everything would fall to earth and splatter.
It's like once upon a time the financial system was a long, silky mane of hair, but as we zipped down the economic highway with the radio on and the top down it tangled into big knots. Now the car was slowing down and nobody had a comb.
We needed a way that a big, interconnected investment bank could fail without taking the rest of the financial system down with it, an orderly wind-down. But nothing existed then (and may not now). So without quick, clear procedures or authority to unwind all of Bear's transactions, they made the judgment that Bear was not too big to fail, but too interconnected.
Lending money to ensure that Bear Stearns didn't collapse avoided the potential cascade a Bear BK might have on the financial system and eventually on you and me.
Okay, so no BK for Bear but why sell at such a low price per share? This brings up (im)moral hazard, the hazard that if the government bails you out once you keep doing the same crazy things certain it will bail you out again. Shouldn't Bear pay some price for that really bad hair? And shouldn't the rest of the wizards worry that they'd have some bad hair days ahead, too? As Hank would explain the following week when asked why they "bailed out" Bear Stearns while Main Street was losing homes in foreclosure:
If you ask the Bear Stearns shareholder in terms of what has happened to their value … I don't think any of them would think this has been a good outcome.
He also cited the low share price as an impediment to the moral hazard risk, but yet:
When policy makers think through these issues, there's the moral hazard on the one hand, and on the other there is the importance of orderly markets, stability in our financial system.
The Fed lent JPMorgan Chase $29 billion against Bear Stearns' collateral; the Fed can't lend money without assets to justify the loan. The risk to you and me, the taxpayers, is that the Fed someday sells these assets for less than $29 billion. Luckily there were assets enough to get the deal done; when Lehman cratered in September the situation was much different.
Like all of us, Hank and the smart-gang at Treasury hoped Bear would be the first and last U.S. victim of the squeeze, but they made plans in case it was not. Banks said their biggest problems were the MBS concoctions clogging up their balance sheets, and so Treasury drafted options for fixes, things like government buying or insuring those assets or injecting capital by purchasing stock. They didn't see how Congress could or would pass such sweeping authority this spring, when it seemed Bear had been a sneeze in the markets not a full-blown flu. Plans were sketched out, just in case, and hopefully would never be needed.
The Federal Reserve poured more money into the liquidity bathtub as events unfolded. On March 7, it increased the Term Auction Facility, the TAF (which we learned about in Chapter 3 but have since forgotten), to $100 billion. The same day it announced $100 billion in new repurchase agreements with primary dealers, with the usual collateral of government securities. Then, on Tuesday, March 11, the Fed announced a new $200 billion Term Securities Lending Facility (Eureka! TSLF): with the TSLF they'd lend against all MBS and so-called "private label" MBS as well as the GSE MBS from Fannie and Freddie.
If all of these Fed-speak acronyms confuse you, welcome to the club. And there are many more yet to come. Keep the big picture in mind; while Congress and Treasury debate and deliberate the Fed can act quickly and decisively through monetary policy. It is pretty helpful.
Overall, between March 7 and 11 the Fed announced $400 billion of new lending to keep markets "orderly" and ease what was an ongoing, never-ending, never-relenting credit squeeze.
Then, in a really big deal, on March 17 (the day after JPMorgan Chase and Bear got married), the Fed cited "unusual and exigent circumstances" and opened the discount window to primary dealers, i.e. non-FDIC banks could borrow directly from the Fed. This authority hadn't been used since the Great Depression. Even I, sitting about 50 yards from the Secretary of the Treasury's office and, I bet you, out there enjoying some St. Patrick's Day green beer, didn't grasp the portent of what was happening.
I'm not sure our presidential candidates or the non-financial media did, either. Some were rather busy feeling thrills up their legs over Senator Barack Obama's speech on race. In specific response to the extraordinary events of the Bear Stearns week, Senators Obama and Clinton said President Bush needed to do more to stop home foreclosures and Senator McCain talked about the government's responsibility to ensure stability. I guess it's safer for candidates to avoid the unusual and the exigent.
But the drama lingered. After Bear Stearns, rumors began about Lehman Brothers in what The Wall Street Journal described as "a chaotic environment of rumors and speculation … where many traders and investors have begun to believe the worst even in the absence of hard facts."
Lehman's share price dropped almost 50% on March 17. Lehman responded that it had $34 billion cash on hand and $63 billion more of collateral that could generate cash. That, plus Lehman, as a primary dealer, could now borrow directly from the Fed, quieted the rumors for a time.
On March 13, in the midst of the Bear Stearns week, Hank gave a speech summarizing —ta da!—the President's Working Group (PWG) on Financial Markets' report about the causes of financial turmoil and recommendations to fix it. The PWG had been working on this report for over year; who knew it would be so timely?
We had started drafting the speech in February. At Treasury, Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets Tony Ryan and a team of scary-smart policy wonks and wonkettes worked with me to come up with a first draft, and then Hank labored over every word, every phrase.
Hank usually took speech drafts home and edited overnight; the PWG speech was at the National Press Club at 10 a.m. on the 13th and I knew he'd come in that morning with final handwritten changes he'd want to see within minutes. I got to the office by 7 a.m., fueled by my first morning Diet Pepsi, logged onto my computer and called Hank's assistant, Christal, and Michele to say "I'm here; I'll make the changes as soon as you have them."
I don't remember exactly how many versions there were over the next two hours; the changes weren't major but I made them and turned them around for Hank to review right away. He edited. I made changes. I waited and never left my chair. I finished a second Diet Pepsi and began to drink water. Hank was tense, Michele was tense, but by about 9 a.m. we'd finished and sent a final copy to the pressroom. I had to go, and rushed down the hall. I was gone for all of two minutes; when I got back my message light was blinking and Christal had sent an urgent email with the message: "Hank wants to talk to you."
I called Christal; she said, "Since he couldn't find you he called Michele."
"I had to, uh, use the restroom."
"There's no time for that." Christal knew better than any of us how true that was.
I called Michele. She said, "It's a good thing you weren't there; he's furious."
Very early, I had learned that Hank doesn't like the word "firm." He likes company, business or institution but not firm. The irony was that economists always use the word "firm" (they must teach that on Policy Island: the dense, wooded island off the coast of Nova Scotia where policy wonks go to school) and I did a find-edit-replace exercise in everything I wrote. During all the changes to this 3,000-word speech, someone had slipped "firm" back in and I had forgotten to do one last check.
And that's what Hank said to Michele: "Stacy knows better." In some ways, it was a compliment that by now I knew his language well enough to know his distaste for one word. We had already released the speech, but Hank wanted us to take notes as he spoke and release a second "as read" version without the word "firm." While it may seem petty to you, hey, it was his speech and if he didn't like the word firm, it shouldn't be in there.
So after our first weeklong episode of Wall Street: Survivor, USA Today wrote this review on March 17:
If nothing else, it is time to realize that if government is going to help financial institutions get out of trouble, it must assume a greater role in keeping them from getting into trouble in the first place. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson acknowledged as much in a speech last week calling for greater government oversight of mortgage lenders and brokers, and higher standards among the major firms that bundle these loans into mortgage-backed securities.
His speech sounded like a litany of all the things government and industry should have been doing years ago and resolutely rejected. A plan for the future perhaps, and a large helping of humble pie for now.
As I reread the PWG speech now, I almost understand it. It includes some factoids and recommendations worth the trouble, so I'll help you with a bit of translation.
First, Hank laid out the PWG's objective:
…(to) get the balance right—regulation needs to catch up with innovation and help restore investor confidence but not go so far as to create new problems, make our markets less efficient or cut off credit to those who need it.
Then we had the problems (remember, we usually do those first) …
Financial innovation has brought … benefits. Financial innovation has also brought, inevitably, the challenge of complexity. In my judgment, some financial products have become overly complex. Excessive complexity is the enemy of transparency and market efficiency.
This effort is not about finding excuses and scapegoats. Those who committed fraud or wrongdoing have contributed to the current problems; authorities need to and are prosecuting them. But poor judgment and poor market practices led to mistakes by all participants.
Among the excessively complex financial products were derivatives. To translate: derivatives are not inherently bad; they help companies hedge against risk, but the OTC (over the counter) derivatives market was tens of trillions of dollars and there was no public place like a stock or commodities exchange to show who was buying and selling and at what price. Over the counter means a couple of firms (oops) negotiate a contract directly and privately, as if across a counter or desk. This was a massive market of financial concoctions, it was systemic and vital but nobody had "regulated" it yet.
Right now, those who think regulation fixes everything are wondering where to point the finger of blame.
But take note: The seeds were sown in the 1990s, when nobody could, or would, regulate derivatives no matter how big the market was getting. And then there was the Commodities Futures Modernization Act (CFMA) signed into law by President Clinton on December 21, 2000. Your history will remind you that Clinton was a lame duck President then, and the bitter Bush versus Gore election had been settled barely a week before.
The CFMA was tucked inside an omnibus spending bill, the wrap-up of all the spending Congress wanted with all the special goodies contained in thousands of pages few people read. The CFMA settled a long-standing dispute between the SEC and the CFTC over who had jurisdiction over "single stock futures," contracts for future delivery of a company's stock at a certain price, i.e. a derivative financial contract.
Commodity futures, locking in a price today to buy a commodity like wheat, corn or pork bellies in the future, have been around for a long time. If you've ever wondered why someone buys pork bellies, the answer is one delicious word: bacon. Financial wizardry brought us stock futures, too, locking in a price today to buy or sell a stock in the future.
In the CFMA, Congress settled the dispute over stock futures and also exempted over the counter derivative trades from oversight. This exemption, later called the Enron Loophole because Enron used it for its trading in fancy energy derivatives, was inserted by Texas Senator Phil Gramm, a Republican. This omnibus bill was passed by a Republican Congress and signed by a Democratic President. The seeds and weeds of our grand financial crisis were planted and sowed by both political parties.
The speech recommended stronger oversight and standards for mortgage originators, to prevent the fly-by-night mortgage brokers that made many of the now-troubled subprime loans.
It also suggested "investors must demand and use better information about investment risk characteristics, when they buy and as they hold." That is, if you don't understand what it is, don't buy it. Alas, we'd find out that investors, regular and investment banks bought, held and sold a lot of stuff they didn't understand.
The banks needed to do a better job of risk management, measurement and reporting. The regulators should "ensure that investors improve due diligence and have greater awareness of risk characteristics." We needed more comprehensive disclosure of fair value estimates for the fancy, complex instruments both on and off the balance sheet.
Hank added a paragraph that wasn't written by the policy wonks; it was the first inkling of his thoughts on what would become a much bigger issue, executive compensation.
The ultimate success of any CEO is largely determined by the answer to one question: Do we have the right people in the right jobs with the right incentive structure? And these large financial institutions … must have people with talent, judgment, expertise and motivation that best serve their institutions and, by extension, contribute to the quality and strength of our markets. I cite this management issue because I do not believe that the top jobs in our large financial institutions are going to get easier any time soon, and the markets, not regulators, will ultimately sort this out.
I especially liked the last sentiment that "markets will ultimately sort this out." Funny how far we strayed from that.
The conclusion said, "No silver bullet exists to prevent past excesses from recurring…"
Hank often talked about not having a silver bullet; I thought it had something to do with the Lone Ranger and his horse, as in "Hi-yo, Silver!" I looked it up. It seems silver bullets are used to kill vampires and werewolves.
Holy Week arrived and I woke early for a sunrise service on Easter morning. In my adopted hometown of Alexandria, Virginia, the Wilkes Street cemetery complex has been the eternal neighborhood for Protestants and Jews since the early 1800s. It is sprawling acres of decaying old and pristine new tombstones scattered like dice on a grass cloth. In the St. Paul's Episcopal (my church) cemetery there's a white marble table-top tombstone dedicated to "The Memory of a Female Stranger" who died at the still-standing, local Gadsby's Tavern on October 14, 1816. The Female Stranger tombstone was St. Paul's altar at sunrise on Easter morning.
I told you I wasn't raised on religion, and regular church worship is a big change for someone who used to joke that I was a pagan and "didn't get the Jesus thing." And I didn't, my prayers to Jesus or the Lord or God were sincere but I never knew who I was talking to. I didn't think much more about Jesus in particular until I joined the Bush Presidential campaign in 1999. In a GOP primary debate, the candidates were asked to name a philosopher that had most influenced them. Governor Bush answered, "Jesus Christ."
Oh, it caused a huge uproar about inserting religion into the public square, but it nudged me to stop being ignorant and learn. During the rest of the campaign, as I worked late nights and long hours with many people of strong faith, I asked them about "the Jesus thing" and began my journey. As I learned more I felt a sigh surrounding me, a comforting hand on my brow as I discovered God's grace.
So, it was easy to get up in the cold and dark on Easter morning for Holy Eucharist. Besides, I like cemeteries; tombstones are headlines about life and death. By 10 a.m. I was home, warmed up and on the phone with Hank, taking his edits to the March 31st speech to accompany Treasury's 218-page "Blueprint for a Modernized Financial Regulatory Structure."
At an Easter supper that night, a somewhat handsome man asked me what I did for a living. In Washington, that's often more important than your first name. I told him I was a speechwriter. He was intrigued, leaned forward and asked, "What are you writing about?"
I mustered my best coquettish voice and said, "Prudential financial regulation."
Did I tell you I've never learned how to flirt?
Before we got to the 31st, Hank spoke to the Chamber of Commerce on the 26th. The speech was a stellar example of first, second and thirds with lots of "musts" and "shoulds." The speech didn't include much good news about housing:
The question many are asking is how deep the correction will be and how long it will last. The Case-Shiller index of home prices in 10 major metropolitan areas showed an 11.4 percent decline in home prices over the 12 months ending in January, and the futures market is predicting that the index will decline another 13 percent in 2008.
Actually, at the end of 2008 the 10-city index showed house prices declined almost 20%. We tried to put the foreclosure issue in perspective and talked about progress by the HOPE NOW alliance:
… since July, more than 1 million struggling homeowners received a work out, either a loan modification or repayment plan that helped them avoid foreclosure.
And in conclusion, Hank again asked Congress to finish work on the FHA Reform bill, and the GSE Reform bill so we could get our arms around what was really going on at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
The next day, March 27, I was overcome with speech envy and fear. First, the envy: Obama gave a speech at Cooper Union in New York on "Renewing the American Economy" and his speechwriter got to write about Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton and Adam Smith's invisible hand. They used literary flourish like calling Wall Street "the narrow canyons of lower Manhattan."
Then the fear: Obama's recommendations were similar enough to our PWG speech and the Blueprint speech draft-in-progress I wondered if there'd been plagiarism or espionage. And since Hank's speech was four days after Obama's, would they claim I was the copycat or spy? Oh, there are countless ways to practice paranoia until you become really, really good at it.
Obama's speech, like Hank's, was a road map of regulatory recommendations. Hank's speech, unlike Obama's, did not blame the problems on special interests, lobbyists, campaign donations or deregulation.
This regulatory stuff does get pretty policy wonkish, but the debate is important because it's probably going to go on forever and, as we've seen, regulation affects everything from the financial system to the neighborhood bank where we stash our money for a rainy day.
David Nason and the Domestic Finance team had begun work on the Blueprint report after the March 2007 Capital Markets Competitiveness Conference at Georgetown, back when we worried more about thriving than surviving. Hank explained why we needed a Blueprint for a new structure:
Much of our current regulatory system was developed after the Great Depression and it has developed through reaction—a pattern of creating regulators as a response to market innovations or to market stress.
We have five federal deposit institution regulators in addition to state-based supervision. We bifurcate securities and futures regulation. And regulation of one of our largest financial services industries, insurance, is almost entirely at the state level … as we look at today's financial markets, the lack of a comprehensive design is clear.
Even though we had a complex, interconnected financial system we still had a bunch of separate regulators in silos looking over each piece and guarding turf:
To illustrate, consider that our current regulatory system is almost solely focused above the ground at the tree level. But, the real threat to market stability is below the ground, at the root level where the health of financial firms is intertwined.
Now for a few comparisons of the Hank and Obama speeches:
Hank: "… regulation needs to catch up with innovation…"
Obama: "… oversight must keep pace with innovation."
On the notion of motion:
Hank: "One of the most constant aspects of American life is change—and nowhere is it more evident than in our financial markets. If private sector institutions don't change, they become obsolete. Our regulatory structure also needs to change and evolve to one which will stand the test of time."
Obama: "Let me be clear: the American economy does not stand still, and neither should the rules that govern it. The evolution of industries often warrants regulatory reform—to foster competition, lower prices, or replace outdated oversight structures. Old institutions cannot adequately oversee new practices."
On regulatory arbitrage:
Hank: "This functional division … creates jurisdictional disputes among regulators …"
Obama: "… we need to streamline a framework of overlapping and competing regulatory agencies."
On a new regulatory model:
Hank: "Our work led us to recommend a regulatory model based on objectives, to more closely link the regulatory structure to the reasons why we regulate."
Obama: "… we need to regulate institutions for what they do, not what they are."
And there was the peculiar coincidence of the beacon:
Hank: "… the model would serve as a beacon guiding us as we take necessary steps to modernize our financial regulatory structure to reflect today's market realities."
Obama: "… A market that has provided great rewards to the innovators and risk-takers who have made America a beacon for science, and technology, and discovery."
The basic upshot in both speeches was that despite an alphabet soup of regulators, Bear Stearns had proven that no single one looked beyond the trees to spot systemic risk and a smoldering forest fire. Even if they had, there was no authority to fill the hoses and circle the trucks to fight it.
The Blueprint outlined a complete overhaul of the system, not more but more effective regulation, and not just adding new layers on top of what was already there. The Optimal Financial Regulatory Model included three regulators. One focused on market stability across the entire financial sector, what you may also know as the "systemic risk" regulator; one focused on banks and institutions that have federal deposit insurance or some sort of taxpayer guarantees; and one focused on protecting consumers and investors.
Hank said this structure would be timeless and flexible, and could "more easily respond and adapt … because it is organized by regulatory objective rather than by financial institution category."
Obama saw the same problem and suggested solving it with a commission:
We need a process that identifies systemic risks to the financial system. Too often, we deal with threats to the financial system that weren't anticipated by regulators. That's why we should create a financial market oversight commission, which would meet regularly and provide advice to the President, Congress, and regulators on the state of our financial markets and the risks that face them. These expert views could help anticipate risks before they erupt into a crisis.
The dour but realistic news for those who thought we could defy economic gravity came from Hank:
I am not suggesting that more regulation is the answer, or even that more effective regulation can prevent the periods of financial market stress that seem to occur every five to ten years…
Those who want to quickly label the Blueprint as advocating "more" or "less" regulation are over-simplifying this critical and inevitable debate. The Blueprint is about structure and responsibilities—not the regulations each entity would write.
In short, nothing can (or should) prevent failure or guarantee reward. Regulations and regulators will fail us as we often fail ourselves and each other.
We had a few minutes of mainstream media fame when Stephen Colbert mocked the Blueprint on his April 1 show. He paged through the ½ inch thick report and called it "a crackling good read."
We lost another 80,000 or so jobs in March and unemployment edged above 5%. The Dow stayed above 12,000 and GDP grew almost 1% in the first quarter. Since we know by now that the first source of our troubles was the housing downturn, a 25% drop in residential construction was grim but not unexpected news. Nobody was buying houses, so fewer houses were being built. Bingo.
March had been a month of battles, and no silver bullets. McCain secured the Republican nomination while Clinton and Obama continued state-by-state combat. The Iraq War was five years old as of March 20, and this March the Iraqi Army led and won its first battle, at Basra.
About a year in, it looked like the surge was working, but both Iraq and financial markets were still best described with that familiar adjective: fragile.
CHAPTER 6: OIL THE DAYS OF OUR LIVES
APRIL 2008
By the end of the first quarter of 2008 we had promised to stimulate the economy and weaved through the unusual and the exigent. During the second quarter, the TED spread settled down to at or below 1% for the first time since the credit squeeze began in July of 2007. Bear Stearns had been our first major victim but also seemed to be our last.
House prices and employment continued to decline but the pace of decline lessened, sort of the way I was still going gray, just fewer hairs at a time. This gave hope to some, including Hank, that we were closer to the end than the beginning of our economic woes.
Early April remained a little bleak, even as daffodils and tulips sprouted in flowerbeds. Moses (Charlton Heston) died. Morgan Stanley reported that 2008 could be the worst year for investment banking since the junk bond crisis 20 years ago, when that generation of wizards used leverage for magical returns until the magic went poof! then, too.
Some hedge funds lost bank credit lines and their investors wanted their cashola back; in hedge-fund land these are called redemptions. To redeem investors' shares, the hedge funds needed—yep, you guessed it—liquidity but a lot of their assets were those MBS and CDOs and structured products that weren't liquid at all. So we had another bunch of people standing in proverbial lines to get their money back early in case they might not get it at all.
U.S. and European banks continued to report billions in write-downs and losses. The Treasury Department's overseer of banks, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), said that U.S. bank failures could rise above "historical norms" and we'd likely face commercial real estate problems, too.
But the Cred-Mart mood had improved and U.S. banks raised billions in old-fashioned private capital from around the world—about $28 billion this month and over $80 billion since October 2007—to offset the losses.
Washington Mutual, the largest U.S. thrift, and Wachovia, the fourth largest U.S. bank, announced stunning loses and then raised billions to shore up their capital, but neither would survive the year.
We'll make a little diversion here to define thrift versus bank, mostly because it's a spellbinding distinction and because it reintroduces us to regulators who did or did not do a good job overseeing the problems at AIG, which is not a thrift but was partially overseen by the Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS).
Way back in 1831, some folks in Frankford, Pennsylvania met at a local tavern and came up with an idea—the townspeople could pool their money and lend it to one another to buy homes. They didn't ask the government to help; they solved a problem with the remarkable creativity that sometimes follows a few hours in a tavern. They formed the first savings association, modeled after the mutual building societies in England, and communities pooled their money specifically to provide mortgages to local residents. These associations—called savings and loans, building and loans, thrift and loans, thrifts, savings and thrifts, etc.—flourished. Probably the best known, albeit fictional, thrift would be Bailey's Building and Loan of It's a Wonderful Life fame.
In the Great Depression, many of these savings and loans and thrifts failed. The government came up with a new program and acronym to help, the Federal Home Loan Banks, FHLB, which we met earlier when we learned about GSEs in Chapter 2. FHLB are co-ops of member-owned banks that lend money for mortgages and community development across 12 regions. For example, there's a FHLB in Topeka, Kansas, that covers four nearby states, and one in Seattle, Washington, that covers six.
In our last housing crisis in the 1980s many Savings and Loans had failed again, and Congress created a new regulator, the Office of Thrift Supervision, to oversee them. By 2008, the thrifts had grown bigger and more sophisticated, offering a lot of the same products as banks and also had FDIC deposit insurance. The March Blueprint for Regulatory Reform said we should abolish the Office of Thrift Supervision because:
In some cases, the market develops so quickly as to render parts of our regulatory structure relatively obsolete. This is the case with the federal thrift charter and the Office of Thrift Supervision, the OTS. The thrift charter is no longer necessary to ensure sufficient residential mortgage loans availability for U.S. consumers … the thrift charter has run its course and should be phased out … OTS would be closed and its operations would be assumed by the OCC.
Surprise! OTS didn't send Hank any fan letters after that, and we all know that once you create a government office (this one with over 1,000 people) it's really hard to make it go away.
Okay, diversion over back to our main story, which is the hint of an economic spring. AIG raised $20 billion to restore its capital even as it had more write-downs and losses. The regular and investment banks, those now-familiar names, like Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers, also reported deep losses and also raised billions through selling preferred shares of stock.
The difference between a preferred stock and a common stock becomes important in a few months and in the months beyond our story here. So let's dwell for a moment in stock land.
The basic bank or company balance sheet is a simple formula:
Assets = Debt/Liabilities + Equity
You know assets include things like cash, accounts receivable, land, intellectual property and equipment. Debt and liabilities include accounts payable, payroll due and loans secured or unsecured by assets.
Now not to get too confusing but assets and liabilities for a regular bank are the opposite. The money we deposit in a bank is a liability because we can ask for it back at any time. While the bank has our deposits, it lends a percentage of them to others. These loans are an asset because they generate interest income for the bank and are (usually) repaid. This is an important function of banks in our economy—they take our $100 deposit and make a $50 loan, for example, so now there's $150 circulating in the system. It's sort of like creating money, isn't it?
Finally, equity in every bank and company is the same, a combination of profits not spent (Eureka! retained earnings) and capital, which is money raised by selling shares of stock. And stock is split into a hierarchy of common and preferred.
You and I probably hold common stock, which we buy directly or through mutual funds. Common stock is cheaper than a preferred stock, so it has a greater upside. It's sold in classes A, B, C, etc., which usually reflects different issue dates and prices. Common shareholders get to vote on the board of directors and some corporate policies through those proxy statements you get in the mail (which I usually don't bother to vote, shame on me). Common stock is lowest on the totem pole of dividend payments and creditors; if a company goes BK pretty much everybody else gets paid off before common stockholders (Eureka! common stock).
Preferred stock, on the other hand, is higher up on the BK totem pole. Preferred stock is more expensive than common stock because it often pays interest or dividends, and may not have voting rights. There's less upside from preferred stock, but that's offset by the payments you get instead (Eureka! preferred stock).
Preferred stock can have all sorts of permutations, and the wizards get the chance to buy preferred stock most often while we, being the common folks, buy common.
Investors continued to buy preferred shares in U.S. banks, and it was good for the banks and for all of us, as Hank would often say,
When the world invests in the United States, it is the ultimate vote of long-term confidence in our economy and our companies.
While the markets seemed calmer, the wheels of Congress continued to turn, ever slowly, to pass legislation that would spend a lot of money in new programs to prevent foreclosures. The Senate amended and passed HR 3221, a foreclosure prevention bill already passed by the House of Representatives. The Senate added, among other things, special tax provisions for homebuilders, auto companies and airlines—tax breaks they might later call loopholes. These had little to do with preventing foreclosures, but were said to be necessary to fix the economy.
Like Captain Renault in Casablanca, The New York Times was "Shocked! Shocked!" that "lawmakers and … lobbyists … recognize a golden opportunity (to add a bunch of special provisions) when they sense that the political winds virtually guarantee a bill's passage, and the housing crisis is just such a time."
Since the Senate bill was different from the House bill, it had to go back to the House to resolve the differences. HR 3221 would travel back and forth between the House and Senate for three more months while foreclosures increased. Not that it did much to stop foreclosures in the end, but that's another story.
Meanwhile, the first of over $100 billion in stimulus payments to those who did and did not pay taxes were deposited into bank accounts by the amazing staff at Treasury's Financial Management Service. Whether you agreed or disagreed with the stimulus, the payments did help GDP rebound this quarter. But since we all knew it was a one-time payment, we didn't buy a new car or house with it. Some don't like short-term stimulus payments because they're like the turkey your boss gives you at Thanksgiving, a nice gesture but it won't feed your family in March. Lots of us just paid down our credit card party-debt or stuck it in savings. I paid off the Italian shoes I had bought in the spirit of free trade many months before.
Our economy wasn't booming but it wasn't busting, either. Our heads bobbed above water until another wave—gasoline prices—crested this spring. Skyrocketing gas prices may have been the tremor that led to the tsunami, the last bridge too far for our economy to cross, a heavier stone for our tired Sisyphus to carry—you know, think of any metaphor describing the straw that broke the camel's back. It had nothing to do with housing or wizards and everything to do with the basic economic theory of supply and demand.
Gas was about $2.40 a gallon in January 2007 and had risen to about $3.05 a gallon by January 2008. By February, the price per gallon started to go up about a dime every week; at the end of April it was $3.60. I don't have to tell you the bite that takes out of your budget, heck, you lived it. And I don't have to tell you that you not only got angry, you stopped spending money on other stuff because you had to pay for that damn gas. Congress could have endorsed safe drilling and unlocked the vast stores of oil in Alaska and the lower 48 states, or pointed fingers and let us pay higher prices and complain. Guess which made more sense (to me anyway); guess which Congress did.
Remember our consumer unit that spent over 60% of its money on housing, food and transportation? Times got harder now for our little unit. It cost more to fly on airlines. Farmers paid more for tractor fuel. Deliveries of everything, from food to packages to children on school buses got more expensive.
High gas prices also compounded our housing troubles because all around the country, like in Bakersfield, people had bought suburban homes miles and miles away from their jobs. Now, those houses lost even more value because it cost more to drive to work.
Meanwhile, Hank traveled to China and spoke in Beijing on U.S.–China energy and environmental cooperation. This made me double grumpy because it involved both the China team and save-the-planet platitudes.
April 22 was the Democratic primary in Pennsylvania (Senator Clinton won) and Earth Day, one of my favorite holidays. Treasury had a special celebration and gave away foam replicas of the Earth, labeled "Made in China," in plastic bags.
On the last day of April, the Federal Reserve reduced the fed funds rate by another 0.25%, a signal that the credit squeeze certainly was not yet over. Hank was interviewed on CNN and said, "I care a great deal about what the American people are going through, but I … need to be very honest and say that there is no short-term, quick fix here."
MAY 2008
We continued to bump along in May, cautiously optimistic that the worst was behind us. Hank described the Fed's response to avoid the collapse of Bear Stearns as "an inflection point." We had added a few jobs in April and the unemployment rate fell back to 5%. Many economists predicted that the early part of 2008 would be the weakest part of the year; maybe we didn't fully grasp the damage of gasoline prices rising 5–10% each month. The Fed continued to expand its lending lines and international currency swaps to make sure the liquidity bathtub stayed warm and full. There were two horrible natural disasters in Asia—a cyclone in Myanmar (Burma) and a 7.9 earthquake in the Sichuan province in western China. Nightly news showed sobbing parents, bodies on stretchers and beige landscapes laid to waste.
Citigroup raised another $4.5 billion in equity and other banks raised capital through debt. Hank went to Kansas City to watch stimulus checks roll off the printer, and we used a cliché to close his remarks: "I … have seen the evidence that when we say the check will be in the mail, we mean it."
When we first started talking about the stimulus, we said it would create 500,000 new jobs over the next two years. So, I used 500,000 in my drafts. The economists changed it to half a million. I changed it back to 500,000. They changed it again. Finally, I asked in what mathematical universe is 500,000 not the same as half a million?
"It sounds less precise," they answered, in one voice.
Math whiz that I am, I also noticed that 500,000 new jobs would mean about 40,000 new jobs each month; was that realistic if we were going into a recession? Come to find out, we should have been saying "half a million jobs that wouldn't have been created otherwise."
So listen for that qualifier when the President or someone tells you that your tax money is going to create jobs that wouldn't have been created otherwise. How do you measure something that didn't happen?
Of course, by the end of the scary year that was 2008 we lost 2.6 million jobs.
In early May, AIG posted an almost $8 billion loss for the first quarter and the fleeting consumer confidence started tumbling as gas prices kept rising. Hank continued to strike a hopeful note because, frankly, 2008 was nothing but a year of hope and change:
I never tire of repeating that we have the most resilient economy in the world— because it is true and that we will emerge from this period as we have emerged from past periods of difficulty and move on to new heights.
I also remained hopeful for a respite or a literary flourish. I sent myself emails that said "I am so sick of writing about housing." I then sent a reply to all, "I am too." All of this led the vast and split-personality office of speechwriting to circulate another embarrassing draft.
It used to be that the largest employer in the Washington region was the federal government; it was the quintessential "company town." That had changed as more private companies moved into the area and on May 16 Hank was to speak at a Washington Post lunch to honor its list of the area's 200 largest private companies.
At the time, there was a scandal about prominent politicians hiring prostitutes. No, not Eliot Spitzer again: there was a DC Madam threatening to release her client list (it sounds so professional, doesn't it?). My first draft of Hank's speech read:
Congratulations to the companies who have made The Washington Post 200 list. There are many lists in Washington but this one, unlike some others, is one where you want your name to appear.
Oh, I can't believe I even showed it to anyone. I imagine Michele wondered if I had lost my mind. But I didn't completely give up; the draft that went to Hank had this:
Over the last forty years, Washington has transformed into a new type of company town.
The final speech said this:
Over the last forty years, Washington has transformed into a diverse corporate center.
I thought my "company town" twist was clever. Apparently, I was the only one. Come to think of it, the two largest publicly traded companies on the Post list, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, have since been taken over by the federal government; does that knock them out of the running for awhile?
This speech summarized all that we had been working on—HOPE NOW, reducing foreclosures, increasing mortgage finance, the PWG recommendations, the Blueprint for Regulatory Reform, the stimulus package that would send over $100 billion to 130 million households—and a summation of why there was reason to hope:
We are seeing signs of progress as capital and credit markets stabilize. The markets are considerably calmer now than they were in March. The de-leveraging and re-pricing of risk continue, as does the capital-raising that is so essential…
Market liquidity and investor confidence are gradually improving, not across the board, but in several sectors including corporate bonds, leveraged loans and high yield debt. Credit default swap, or CDS, spreads on major bank, brokerage firm, and Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac debt have declined appreciably since March. Broader CDS indexes of investment grade and high yield bonds have fallen … and while spreads generally are still elevated and significant parts of the market, including securitized credit and interbank lending, are not functioning as normal, the trends indicate on-going improvement. Likewise, we are seeing issuance gradually grow in certain credit sectors.
This lead to statements that seemed quite reasonable:
We should expect some bumps in the road ahead. But in my judgment we are closer to the end of the market turmoil than the beginning.
(Ouch; got that one wrong.)
We saw another list in the Financial Times that said world banks had lost $800 billion, insurers $148 billion (AIG was almost half of that) and Fannie and Freddie almost $115 billion since the beginning of 2007. Even the economists and I could reach the same sum: losses were already over $1 trillion.
The slow wheels of Congress turned to housing again in May, as the U.S. Census Bureau reported that 18.6 million U.S. homes were sitting vacant and foreclosures were rising in 46 of 50 states, not just the house-party states of Arizona, California, Florida and Nevada.
The House took up the Senate version of HR 3221 and added a few bells, whistles and billions, including a new $300 billion housing foreclosure prevention program. Oh! We were grumpy about this. The White House said it would help lenders, speculators and irresponsible homeowners more than you or me (assuming we're none of the those).
So HR 3221 went back to the Senate Banking Committee, which reported another version of the bill for the full Senate to consider, which it wouldn't do until June. It included that $300 billion foreclosure program and named it "Hope for Homeowners." The name was similar to HOPE NOW, although the programs were as different as night and day.
HOPE NOW was the industry's attempt at solutions, didn't involve any taxpayer money and was refinancing about 200,000 mortgages per month. The Hope for Homeowners program would run through FHA, and offer taxpayer money to lenders who wrote down the principle balance of troubled mortgages they refinanced.
Hank and the White House wanted two simple things from a housing bill: FHA reform and a stronger regulator for the GSEs. Congress was working on the premise that government could prop up the housing market somehow. The FDIC proposed another taxpayer-funded housing solution: the Treasury Department should lend money to underwater borrowers. This proposal would be batted around for months, too.
As painful as it might have been—not that it hasn't been painful anyway—it seemed to me we should let the market find its bottom and help with that aftermath rather than keep trying to deny housing gravity.
Fannie and Freddie charged off more bad loans, reported more delinquent loans and big losses while adding almost $1.5 trillion in new mortgage holdings. According to the regulations at the time, both had sufficient capital to keep growing. The Grateful Dead used to sing about one man's ceiling being another man's floor; when it came to Fannie and Freddie, one man's capital was another man's myth.
On May 25, Hank was the commencement speaker at his son's alma mater, Hamilton College in New York. We needed to be wise, foreseeing and funny, again.
We had the wise and foreseeing part down from the 2007 Dartmouth speech; I needed to add the funny. Luckily, the students at the college named after Treasury's own Alexander Hamilton made it easy. The college has a statue of Hamilton that they paint and decorate with various, um, anatomical enhancements. Treasury also has a Hamilton statue which we never decorated or enhanced, but sometimes you have to pull a leg or two, even if it's wearing knickers:
We have a prominent Hamilton statue at Treasury, just as you have the statue in front of the Chapel. What few people know is that pranksters also take liberties with our statue. Where yours may be painted gold, donned with a straw hat or draped with Mardi Gras beads, we sometimes find a 1040 E-Z tax form or a GDP growth-rate graph carefully taped to our statue's three-corner hat.
As things got more tense and difficult through the rest of the year, I started talking to our Hamilton statue. Not so crazy as to stop and start a conversation, but I'd walk past and wish him, "Good morning, Alexander," or ask, "How do you think we're doing?" Unfortunately, he never answered.
If you ever come to Washington and want to talk to Hamilton yourself, he's not where you think he is.
Tourists stand outside the iron fence in front of the Treasury Department at 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, with the White House to their right and 15th Street to their left, and take souvenir photographs of the imposing bronze statute at the base of the wide stone steps—a stout, beak-nosed man with a sweeping wide cloak above the inscription proclaiming him a "genius of finance."
They are taking a picture of Albert Gallatin.
Who?
Gallatin was the third and longest-serving Secretary of the Treasury, for 13 years under Presidents Jefferson and Madison. Gallatin (and Thomas Jefferson) opposed Hamilton's ideas and programs and tried to dismantle them until Gallatin realized that Hamilton had created "the most perfect system ever formed."
The statue of the real genius of finance, the Father of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, is on the other side of the building, facing south. It's a statue of diminutive man who could be suffocated by Gallatin's cloak. Alexander holds a three-corner hat, wears knickers and buckled shoes and looks out over Hamilton Place, the Treasury employee parking lot.
That Alexander Hamilton, our finest financier, the architect of financial perfection, stands at Treasury's back door is a constant reminder of, as Hamilton wrote near the end of his productive and melancholy life, "how oddly are all things arranged … I am just where I do not wish to be."
He has a lovely vista; to his left he can look up Pennsylvania Avenue and see the U.S. Capitol dome, and through the trees straight ahead he can see the monument to his patron and friend George Washington.
In addition to more hope for homeowners, Congress threatened to legislate changes to mark-to-market valuations. So the supreme accounting wizards at FASB started to consider some reforms. They still maintained that the principles were right, pointing out that accounting and regulatory valuations weren't required to be the same, sort of like your realtor says your house is worth $125,000 but your tax bill but values it at $100,000. I imagine FASB imagined what would happen if Congress started mandating the rules for valuing assets and debts.
JPMorgan Chase finalized its purchase of Bear Stearns. The common shareholders, who had balked at the low (im)moral hazard price, received $10 per share versus the $2 per share agreed to in March.
JUNE 2008
June was a sad month for Meet the Press fans, as the young Tim Russert died of a heart attack. I, for one, still miss him every Sunday morning.
The Democratic primary finally ended in early June. Obama went to St. Paul, Minnesota, and on June 3 gave a speech as the presumptive Democratic nominee. He talked about a poor guy in Pennsylvania who couldn't afford to buy gas to go look for a job. Obama's solution was:
…an energy policy that works with automakers to raise fuel standards, and makes corporations pay for their pollution, and oil companies invest their record profits in a clean energy future—an energy policy that will create millions of new jobs that pay well and can't be outsourced…
Maybe this guy in Pennsylvania just wanted cheaper gas rather than a grand national policy of blame and programs that would take years to enact? Yet I bet he was comforted to know that Obama's nomination brought "the moment … when the rise of the oceans began to slow and our planet began to heal."
And I thought my save-the-planet platitudes were [profoundly mistaken].
Senator Clinton endorsed Obama a few days later and the fall presidential match was set: the experienced but erratic, elderly, White fighter pilot versus the inexperienced but soothing, young, Black lawyer.
Whatever economic sun seemed to shine in April and May ducked behind clouds in June, for good. We hit a milestone and a millstone: gas went over $4.00 a gallon and the price didn't stop rising until mid-July. The Dow dropped almost 500 points in the first week and began a steady decline that would continue for the rest of the year. Smart people probably started to sell stocks. Not me, I believe in buying high and selling low so that I'll always have to work and not wonder what to do with myself in retirement.
Hank made his first and only trip to the Middle East, once again to talk about open investment as a good thing and protectionism a bad thing, for all the world. The background material sent by IA to draft his speech didn't mention a word about rising oil and gas prices. "Don't you think we ought to mention it?" I asked. Debate ensued and in the end, Hank mentioned and explained it in Abu Dhabi on June 2:
I will start with a most pressing issue—the reality and implications of record-high oil prices in this region and around the world.
… record high oil prices are putting a large burden on the world economy and creating hardships for families, households and industries everywhere. This threatens to exacerbate economic volatility…
High oil prices are the result of supply and demand factors that are likely to persist for some time. Supplies have been affected by low capacity expansion and declining yields, while demand has surged largely due to growth in emerging markets. Speculation and the depreciation of the dollar are likely only small factors behind oil price increases.
And then he offered a realistic solution:
Successfully alleviating the pressures in oil markets will require matching supply to demand. On the demand side, we need to allow market forces to work, to avoid subsidies and other potentially distorting policies. We also need to invest in renewable fuels and alternative technologies, and to reduce oil dependency through improved energy efficiency…
On the supply side, we are urging all oil producing countries to open oil markets to foreign investment, which would support faster and more efficient growth…
The Middle East hasn't always been wealthy kingdoms of oil sheiks. Not too long ago the region was more like the third than the first world, but while the United States worried about healing the planet and blocked drilling here at home, worldwide oil demand kept rising. The Middle East meets that demand and takes our dollars in return; smart sheiks.
On top of the credit squeeze and housing problems, gas was now $4.01 a gallon and we were in oil shock. And that didn't help our economy one bit.
Past oil shocks were caused by supply disruptions. Take the 1970s. In response to the Yom Kippur War in 1973, OPEC declared an oil embargo and we had our first oil crisis. President Nixon said then what we still hear today, that American science, technology and industry can free the United States from dependence on foreign oil and he launched Project Independence, setting the goal of energy self-sufficiency by 1980.
Nixon had some puny energy policy office in the White House; so President Carter created a Department of Energy in 1977. Let's see, I think almost 35 years have passed and we still depend on foreign oil; or maybe I just missed the memo. Is it that everything old is new again, or is everything new really old?
The next oil shocks came after the 1979 Iranian revolution (they threw out the U.S.-backed Shah and Islamic clerics took charge of the government) and Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait.
In 2008, there wasn't a war, a revolution or even an embargo. There was too much worldwide demand for too little supply.
When U.S. gas prices hit this never-before-seen number of about $4.00 a gallon, not only did we drive less, we stopped buying cars, especially those glorious, suburban SUVs.
More chickens flocked home to roost and made a mess in the economic yard—housing correction, credit squeeze, financial turmoil, staggering gas prices and lower consumer spending—which led to—voilà!—rising unemployment. This led to more housing troubles, higher loan defaults, lower auto sales, lower consumer spending, a tighter squeeze at Cred-Mart and more financial turmoil.
Amazingly, though, GDP grew a little in the first quarter and at an almost 3% annual rate in the second. That was mostly because April and May were so cheerful and that economic stimulus helped a bit, too.
But after oil prices scared us half to death, the predictions about a rebound in the second half of 2008 would not come true.
People smarter than I have asked whether we might have eased out of the credit squeeze if we hadn't had the energy price shock. Maybe our big, burly economy was wading into safer, shallow waters when pow! it got hit from behind by this unexpected wave.
In mid-June Lehman Brothers announced it wrote down almost $4 billion of assets and posted its first-ever quarterly loss, almost $3 billion. It still valued its mortgage, real estate and asset-backed securities, including those MBS, CMOs, CDOs and ABS assets, at over $60 billion. Lehman said it would raise money to cover the losses, and they needed to.
Meanwhile, Congress kept trying to reach agreement to spend money to prevent foreclosures. The Senate passed a new version of HR 3221 and included the GSE reforms, the $300 billion Hope for Homeowners Act and those (shocking!) tax breaks. The Congressional Budget Office estimated it would help maybe 400,000 homeowners and the Administration threatened to veto it if they didn't make changes. So HR 3221 went back to the House, a weary traveler carrying the weight of a veto threat and an ever-weakening economy.
Like almost everything in our crisis, if it wasn't one thing it was another. And if it was another, then it was another thing, too.
CHAPTER 7: INCOMING!!!
JULY 2008
While in wandering in Wonderland, Alice said, "It would be nice if things made sense for a change." Things started to make sense this month, but the sense wasn't good. We marked the one-year birthday of the credit squeeze with the Pyrrhic gift of the Dow 20% lower than in July 2007. That, plus high gas prices, meant everybody felt a little poorer at the end of each day. The market would go up again, soon, wouldn't it? This was a dip, not a trend, right?
July was like March, a month of rumors. The targets were Lehman Brothers, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
Remember how in March Bear Stearns was first beset by rumors that it was losing credit lines? Similar rumors hit Lehman Brothers now, after it posted that multi-billion-dollar loss in June. Lehman and its creditors offered quick, calm reassurances that everything was okay. Yet, Lehman had lost about a third of its market value. Its shares were trading in a range which typically signals the firm is in distress and the cost of insuring Lehman's debt against default soared (yes, those Credit Default Swaps, CDS). Lehman still said it held assets worth $60 billion (don't forget that number, it's big until it isn't).
The SEC investigated whether investors were starting rumors of Lehman, Fannie and Freddie's demise and then trading on the lower prices through "naked short selling."
We learned in Chapter 4 about short selling, borrowing a stock and betting the price will go down, and that if you bet correctly, you make money. If you bet incorrectly, you lose money.
That's legal; what's not legal is naked short selling, which is not about no shirt, no pants, no selling. The naked short seller never actually borrows the stock or even checks to see if there is stock that could be borrowed. He shorts based on mythical stock possession, in volumes big enough to push the stock price down and then trades to make money on the lower price. When the deadline arrives to actually deliver the stock that he never intended to borrow or buy, he simply doesn't (Eureka! naked shorts or naked short selling).
Say Mr. Ed is favored to 2:1 to win the Kentucky Derby. If you bet $1 and he wins, you'll be paid $2. A naked short seller would go the betting window and promise to buy tons of tickets on Mr. Ed to show, that is to come in third. He never buys the tickets but his promised ticket purchase manipulates the board so now the odds against Mr. Ed winning have increased to 5:1. Then the naked short seller scurries over to off-track betting and actually buys tickets on the new odds, and if Mr. Ed wins he now makes $5 instead of $2. This isn't exactly parallel but hopefully it helps explain this illegal practice of price manipulation for gain. In any case, we want to hear Mr. Ed's speech no matter if he wins, places or shows, don't we?
There were rumors all month about Lehman and the other big Wall Street investment banks. Hank and the smart gang at Treasury were watching of course, worried about a replay of Bear Stearns, and considering what they could do.
We still had a rather empty toolbox (toolbox is another favorite Treasury word). The Fed's toolbox, on the other hand, had power tools. Since Lehman, as a primary dealer, could now borrow against its assets at the Fed discount window, Lehman wouldn't run out of credit the way Bear Stearns had. This helped keep Lehman afloat while it scrambled, or some might say ambled, to raise capital.
And in the sort-of-related category, our financial turmoil led the 2008 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary to add a new adjective, sub-prime: "credit or loan arrangements for borrowers with a poor credit history, typically having unfavourable conditions such as high interest rates;" and a new definition for the noun crunch: "a severe shortage of money or credit." What we called a credit squeeze, the Brits called a credit crunch.
The 2008 the OED also added another turmoil-related word, as in economic-stress-over-eating, muffin top: "a roll of fat visible above the top of a pair of women's tight fitting low-waisted trousers."
Fannie and Freddie's stocks plunged to 52-week lows this month despite their regulators' assurance that they were "well capitalized" and could withstand continued housing market troubles. We know that a well-capitalized Fannie and Freddie weren't the same as a well-capitalized bank and, all drama aside, so did everybody else and they began to worry about it, really. Confidence, already in short supply, kept dwindling.
Together, Fannie and Freddie had about $5 trillion in total obligations and $60 billion in capital. That's like you and me operating a $5 million bank with $60,000, or leverage of 83:1. If we tried that, You & Me Bank would be seized by the FDIC. But Fannie and Freddie had different rules.
House prices kept falling, the economy kept weakening and it was almost impossible to get a mortgage from a bank unless it could sell that mortgage to the GSEs, so Fannie and Freddie kept growing bigger. Between April and June of 2008, they originated or touched 84% of all new mortgages. We needed that GSE reform legislation, yesterday.
The House Committee on Financial Services held a hearing on our Blueprint for Regulatory Reform, and also wanted to talk about Fannie and Freddie's woes. Hank and Ben came before Barney and Spencer again. When asked about Fannie and Freddie, Hank said he didn't think it was "helpful to speculate about financial institutions and systemic risk." Ben said they were "well-capitalized in the regulatory sense" which, as we know, sometimes isn't any sense at all (sorry, Alice).
We'd see this delicate dance again in the fall, with Hank and Ben wanting to be wholly truthful—Yes, sir, the financial system may collapse—while not creating a truth by being truthful—Yes sir, the system may collapse and, by saying this, I am making it more likely that it will.
The press speculated about what Treasury might or might not do for the GSEs, and that possibility had to come from somewhere, right? Stories in The Wall Street Journal about "U.S. Mulls Future of Fannie, Freddie" and in The New York Times that "U.S. Weighs Takeover of Two Mortgage Giants" set up a question that we'd have to answer.
Uncle Sam had been living with Fannie and Freddie for years. The world's investors assumed it was as good as marriage, but Uncle Sam hadn't yet committed. Now Sam had to choose: in or out. A lesser man might have snuck away while Fannie and Freddie were in the shower, but we know Uncle Sam is not a lesser man.
As Fannie and Freddie's stock kept dropping the world worried, not just about the stock price but also about the trillions in outstanding GSE debt. If Fannie and Freddie went BK, their debt would become worthless and investors around the world would lose trillions. That would upset Cred-Mart, to say the least.
Then the housing correction and the credit squeeze claimed its next big victim; on July 11 the $32 billion IndyMac Bank was taken over by the FDIC. In the world of trillions where we now live, $32 billion may not seem so big, but it was—it was the second biggest bank failure, at least then, second only to the 1984 failure of Continental Illinois Bank.
Since you live beyond "the narrow canyons of lower Manhattan," you probably weren't watching Lehman's credit default spreads or wondering about Fannie and Freddie's debt, but you did see real pictures of real Americans standing in line to get their cashola at IndyMac bank. That, plus rising unemployment, gas reaching $4.11 a gallon, constant bad news about more foreclosures and lower house values made this a really lousy summer.
The same day IndyMac failed, the full Senate passed the latest version of the housing GSE FHA Reform bill, folding it into HR 3221 and sent it back to the House once again.
Wouldn't you know that Treasury had been mulling the future of Fannie and Freddie? In the first of many Sunday afternoon surprises, Hank announced a plan on July 13. He stood on the Treasury steps, with Alexander Hamilton over his left shoulder, and further complicated HR 3221's travels by asking Congress to add these provisions to stabilize the GSEs:
First, as a liquidity backstop, the plan includes a temporary increase in the line of credit the GSEs have with Treasury.
Second … the plan includes temporary authority for Treasury to purchase equity in either of the two GSEs if needed.
Use of either the line of credit or the equity investment would carry terms and conditions necessary to protect the taxpayer.
Third … the plan strengthens the GSE regulatory reform legislation currently moving through Congress by giving the Federal Reserve a consultative role in the new GSE regulator's process for setting capital requirements and other prudential standards.
The first two parts were to reassure the world that Uncle Sam would make sure Fannie and Freddie had adequate capital to survive. Uncle Sam didn't commit to marriage, but he wasn't moving out, either; the uncomfortable co-habitation would continue.
The third step, adding the Fed as additional eyes to look at the GSEs' books, was to reassure that well capitalized meant something beyond the regulatory (non)sense.
This same day, the SEC also announced investigations into "the intentional spread of false information intended to manipulate securities prices," that is, as Lehman, Fannie and Freddie's stock continued to fall, the SEC remained mighty suspicious about naked short selling. Some believed naked short selling had hastened or maybe even caused the fall of Bear Stearns, and the SEC was trying to prevent it happening again.
Two days later the SEC went further and required short sellers to actually borrow the securities in the first place, to smoke out the naked shorts. It issued an emergency order with stronger protections against naked short selling in Fannie, Freddie and 17 other regular and investment banks that were primary dealers—banks like Citigroup, Bank of America, Merrill Lynch and Lehman. It's a good thing we know what a primary dealer is, right?
Hank asked Congress to enact his plan for Fannie and Freddie and they … held a hearing. On July 15 Hank and Ben appeared before the Senate Banking Committee and Hank explained that the new plan was needed to support "the stability of financial markets" and that Fannie and Freddie's regulator had "reaffirmed that both GSEs remain adequately capitalized."
The senior Republican Senator on the Committee, Richard Shelby of Alabama, asked "If the enterprises are … safe and sound … what are we doing here today?" and then answered his own question, "The GSEs, even when they're deemed safe and sound, can pose systemic risk."
Committee Chairman Dodd had said repeatedly that Fannie and Freddie were sound and thought "it very important that we not contributed to the unwarranted fear … this is a time for calm." It reminded me of that scene in Animal House where Kevin Bacon's character screams for a hysterical crowd to "Remain calm. All is well." The crowd tramples him.
One of the many who wasn't calm was Republican Senator Jim Bunning. He didn't much like the idea of government buying equity in Fannie and Freddie and said, "I woke up and thought I was in France" when he saw Hank's proposals in the morning papers. He and a few others thought this was the chance to send the GSEs to their rightful place as dismantled or dead companies. This was likely a very good idea before the relationship got rocky; but now it was too late. As Hank would say in his final speech in January 2009,
For some time market participants had questioned whether the GSEs were adequately capitalized for the risk they were taking, and therefore able to withstand losses without triggering a systemic event…
By allowing the GSE structural ambiguities to persist for too long, U.S. policymakers have created an untenable situation.
The GSEs were bound to come undone on somebody's watch, and the unluck of the draw made it Hank's. He would say, "I would rather not be in the position of asking for extraordinary authorities to support the GSEs. But I am playing the hand that I have been dealt."
It was at this Senate Banking hearing that Hank offered one of the more memorable metaphors of the turmoil to explain the power of his plan:
If you've got a squirt gun in your pocket, you probably will have to take it out. … If you have a bazooka in your pocket and people know it, you probably won't have to take it out.
Ah, speak softly and carry a big bazooka. The $200 billion in credit backstops and the authority to buy equity were supposed to calm the markets. But Fannie and Freddie's shares kept falling.
Why? Uncertainty, mostly.
Sophisticated investors are almost like real people and didn't know if this plan meant the government would or wouldn't act. If the government did buy Fannie and Freddie's shares, it could wipe out existing common stock shareholders. The fancy word for this is dilution. When the government (or anybody) buys a slug of new shares, it reduces the existing shareholders' share of the pie, i.e. their ownership percentage, or if the shares are sold at a lower price this lowers the market price for everybody (Eureka! dilution).
This is why Uncle Sam is the ultimate Big Noise when he enters markets; it's impossible to ignore him or, in this case, his bazooka. He's omnipresent (but not omniscient) and interferes with a normal day, even if he's only trying to make it normal again. And here is where conservative and liberal philosophies collide.
Conservative philosophy says keep Uncle Sam out of the room as much as possible; let markets work, they are imperfect but self-correcting. Liberal philosophy says that Uncle Sam is a welcome guest that can eliminate imperfection and smooth the upheaval of self-correction.
Even though we often think of the invisible hand as a metaphor for pure profit motive, the father of the invisible hand, ye olde 18th Century Scotsman Adam Smith, never advocated that. He was a religious and faithful man who believed the invisible hand would be "kept in check by the regard men hold for others." He certainly didn't advocate markets without an ethical core.
Conservatives (Republicans, mostly) sound cold and detached when they defend "markets," while liberals (Democrats, mostly) sound compassionate and caring when they defend "people." It's like the GOP stands on the corner with a fire hose defending the whole subdivision, while the Democrats go house to house with buckets. Both parties have the same intention—to help people—but one believes some houses will burn and the other believes no house should ever burn.
Despite the demagoguery, many conservatives think regulation is needed, such as making naked short sellers wear clothes. Hank is one of those, and talked often about the need for better not just more regulation.
Okay, end of soliloquy, back to markets! Many banks announced better-than-expected earnings for the quarter ended in June, but they also wrote down billions and struggled under the weight of MBS still sitting on their balance sheets.
When Congress realized there was imminent trouble in GSE land, it did act fairly fast—if you think 12 months since HR 3221 first hit the road is quick. On July 23, the House amended and passed HR 3221 again, and the Senate passed the final version on July 26. It was renamed the Housing and Economic Recovery Act (they always put highfalutin names on these things), and it was expensive. It included the long-awaited GSE and FHA reforms, established nationwide licensing for mortgage originators, added the $200 billion bazooka provisions and the $300 billion Hope for Homeowners program. President Bush signed it on July 30 and another bit of hope became law.
I missed some of the Fannie and Freddie drama because I took a short vacation in early July. For eight mornings, I really did wake up in France. My friend Ginny and I spent a week falling in love with the Normandy coast of World War II and whispering to the ghosts of its brave soldiers. This military-men-in-uniform thing was not quite an obsession, but it was a nice diversion from the financial-men-in-ties at Treasury.
Normandy is the France that hasn't forgotten the Allies; American, Canadian and British flags fly over Norman homes. They keep our buried dead in their soil and are grateful for what we did to free them from the Germans.
As I walked through the endless, crisp rows of white marble crosses at the American Cemetery above Omaha Beach, you've seen it in the opening and closing scenes of Saving Private Ryan, it reminded me of what a priest had told me when I asked that time-worn question "Why is there evil?"
The priest said, "God weeps at evil," and as I walked through the cemetery I thought surely His tears watered that grass its startling green. I also found comfort in remembering that America had been through upheaval before and came out better and stronger on the other side.
While I was in France, I picked up the international newspapers, and there was Hank. I watched the international news, and there was Hank. Europe was as interested in our economic troubles as we were, and it made me think I ought to stop whining about the words interdependent, interconnected and globalization.
The London Evening Standard published a picture of Hank as Superman flying with outstretched arms and clenched fists above the Manhattan skyline.
The headline: "America hopes it will be Super Hank to the rescue."
The sub-headline: "As the U.S. continues its steep decline and financial firms fall victim to the evil villain Credit Crunch, Paulson is shaping up to be a superhero."
"The evil villain Credit Crunch," wish I'd thought of that.
Meanwhile, in early July the SEC told us something we probably should have figured out long ago, that the credit-rating agencies had been more than a little irresponsible when they rated all those fancy concoctions. They had cut corners; they had conflicts of interest and hadn't examined what was in all those MBS chocolate boxes and their derivatives. So when investors thought they were investing in say, AAA securities, they were really investing in something more like B– or C.
Markets and investors relied on the credit ratings agencies to give accurate report cards, but they hadn't. It was like grade inflation in schools, every child got an A, even if he couldn't read or write. Sure, the ratings agencies fessed up now, but it was awfully too late.
Hank spoke at the Exchequer Club in Washington on July 31; we didn't know it was going to be one of his last speeches for awhile. We were able to point to good news for the second quarter that ended June 30:
Data released this morning show that our economy expanded in the second quarter …
… and thank goodness for trade!
Trade continues to drive growth, adding 2.4 percentage points … companies invested and benefited from strong export growth.
But now the bad news:
While the stimulus is making our economy stronger than it would have been otherwise, the housing correction, credit market turmoil, and high energy prices remain a considerable drag on the economy—and the effects of this drag can be seen in the soft job market.
Note that "soft job market" is what economists say when jobs are hard to find; seems to me they should call it a "hard job market."
Record high oil prices, which have increased dramatically since year-end, are putting a large burden on the U.S. and the world economy and creating hardships for families, households and industries everywhere. There are no simple or quick remedies for this. High oil prices are the result of supply and demand factors that are likely to persist for some time.
And, finally, the somewhat encouraging words:
While our economy faces substantial difficulties that will continue to be a drag on growth in the short term, it is important to remember that our long-term fundamentals are strong. Recognizing the challenges ahead of us, I expect our economy to continue growing this year although at a moderate pace … housing continues to be at the heart of our economic challenges and remains our most significant downside risk.
We were still worried that a too-interconnected investment bank might fail, and Hank talked to Barney and others about needing that orderly wind-down authority. But everyone was realistic. Congress reacts to crisis, it rarely reacts in advance of one. They couldn't fix the financial regulations as quickly as we needed and nobody expected we'd need the fix as quickly as we did. So, when the trouble came Hank had to, as he often put it, "do this with duct tape and bailing wire."
AUGUST 2008
The final stretch of the presidential campaign began this month, with reveling and rhetoric at the national political conventions. And it was another restless August for Treasury. The bazooka provisions were now law, but they didn't stop the crumbling confidence in Fannie and Freddie.
Their shares continued to drop; fewer investors wanted to buy their debt or even the GSE MBS that had been the best-looking girl at the investor dance for years. Even if they could find investors, they had to pay higher prices and this kept 30-mortgage rates above 6%. The bazooka was not working out as it was supposed to; instead of reassuring markets, it made them wary. Investors knew Fannie and Freddie were in trouble and undercapitalized; they kept their money in their pocket, wondering when Hank would take the bazooka out of his.
Along with the Fannie and Freddie trouble, there were predictions that another large U.S. bank would fail. The question was which one—Lehman, Wachovia, Washington Mutual or one not yet on the radar screen?
Since Lehman reported that big loss in June, there had been much cajoling and urging for them to raise capital, sell assets or sell the whole darn bank. There were brief, buoyant hopes about Chinese or Korean investors, but reports were that Lehman wanted more than the buyers were willing to pay. Lehman's stock gyrated along with the speculation but kept moving down until by late August its market value was about $9 billion. Even though they said they had assets worth $60 billion? Ahem.
Hank and everybody were holding their breath waiting for Lehman's third quarter report in early September; nobody expected it to be good.
To add to the drama, AIG announced it had lost over $5 billion in the quarter ended in June, on top of the almost $8 billion lost through March. We know the biggest cause of the losses (this is getting a little repetitive isn't it): derivatives.
And if that wasn't enough, it looked like General Motors was going to need billions and billions of cash to survive, too.
Now that we had the authority, Treasury brought in Morgan Stanley to help review Fannie and Freddie's books. The report was not pretty. As Hank would describe it in his January 2009 speech on the GSEs:
Immediately after passage of the legislation, in coordination with the Federal Reserve, the newly-constituted GSE regulator, FHFA, and our advisor Morgan Stanley, we began a comprehensive financial review of the GSEs. At the same time, mortgage market conditions continued to deteriorate. Negative earnings announcements by Fannie and Freddie in August reflected those worsening conditions, and further roiled markets. Neither company appeared to have any reasonable prospect of raising private capital to allay those concerns in the foreseeable future, and our examination found capital to be inadequate—in terms of both the quality of capital and the embedded losses stemming from worsening mortgage market conditions.
Both companies announced dismal results for the June quarter-end, and increased reserves by billions to prepare for the likely dismal future. Hank still said he didn't plan to use the bazooka, but as the month progressed it seemed massive government intervention was inevitable.
While the mulling took place in the backroom, the television in the living room was tuned to the Beijing summer Olympics, the final innings of the major league baseball season and for political junkies like me, the presidential campaign.
The good news was that in a softening, or hardening, economy, gas prices had started to fall almost as fast as they had risen. By the end of August, a gallon of gas would be a relatively cheap $3.68.
On August 23, Obama announced in a text message that Delaware Senator Joe Biden was his pick for Vice President, and then the candidates of hope and change swept into Denver, Colorado for the Democratic National Convention. Biden mentioned the economy only once in his speech, as in "Senator Obama will transform it." Obama mentioned the economy more often and described it accurately as "in turmoil."
What none of us knew was that by mid-September the economy would overshadow every other campaign issue. Every American not too dumbfounded to speak would say "economy" as if it were profanity. All the candidates talked about how they would fix it. They assumed that government could.
CHAPTER 8: HOW QUICKLY THE WORLD TURNS
SEPTEMBER 1–7, 2008
While the DNC celebrated in Denver, Hank and the gang at Treasury scoured Fannie and Freddie's books, and I volunteered as a speechwriter at the Republican convention in St. Paul, Minnesota. I spent ten days trying to write clever applause lines and dearly missed the comforting scold of Treasury's factual but boring policy wonkese. I wondered aloud whether we had research to verify a statistic and grumbled that some speeches ignored economic reality. In return, my fellow writers threatened to beat me with their shoes.
I've never been to a Democratic convention, but I imagine they are as excited for their candidates as we are for ours. We shout from our seats, wave signs, drown in red, white and blue and are absolutely certain that if the country elects their guys instead of ours, we are doomed.
I flew back to Washington with a flush of excitement that lasted about one day. On Saturday, September 6, Michele sent out an all-hands email asking for help at a press conference on Sunday at the Federal Housing Finance Authority (FHFA) the newly named Fannie and Freddie regulator. The game was afoot.
I went in early on Sunday to proofread Hank's statement. It had been written by the experts and the lawyers. I didn't completely understand it, which was becoming my new normal, so I looked at punctuation and grammar rather than substance.
It's a short walk from Treasury to the FHFA office, a brown marble low-rise at the corner of G and 17th Streets, and I arrived and stood in the back. There were many new faces mingled among the old Treasury staff; all wore dark suits and frowns. These were the advisors who had examined Fannie and Freddie's financials and didn't find any reason to smile.
At 11 a.m., Hank and James Lockhart, the Director of FHFA, walked in, stood at the microphone and pulled out the bazooka. The U.S. government was taking over Fannie and Freddie.
They stood in the well of the bare auditorium and explained to this Sunday press gathering that the GSEs were being placed in "conservatorship." The FHFA would become the conservator, which meant it would provide money, and control and direct the companies back to a sound footing. You might be familiar with this if you've ever been named conservator of, say, an elderly parent's estate; the court appoints you to manage their money and their life (Eureka! conservatorship). We expected Fannie and Freddie to recover and not need the government, eventually. And I hope your parent recovers, too.
The U.S. government hadn't seized control of a non-BK publicly held company since President Truman tried to seize the steel mills in 1952 and was roundly rebuked by the Supreme Court. This was different than steel mills; Fannie and Freddie had always been semi-wards of the state. Now there was no doubt who was in charge.
Neither Hank nor Lockhart took any questions and their statements were short and solemn. Hank said that Fannie and Freddie were so financially unstable he couldn't simply invest more taxpayer money and let business go on as usual:
Based on what we have learned about these institutions over the last four weeks—including what we learned about their capital requirements—and given the condition of financial markets today, I concluded that it would not have been in the best interest of the taxpayers for Treasury to simply make an equity investment in these enterprises in their current form.
We examined all options available, and determined that this comprehensive and complementary set of actions best meets our three objectives of market stability, mortgage availability and taxpayer protection.
This gets a little high finance wonkish, but it's important for you to know what was done. The first part of the plan was to allow Fannie and Freddie to keep buying mortgages because we still needed them in the mortgage market. That meant these "too big to fail" giants would keep getting bigger for awhile. Then, after the housing correction was over by 2010 (we hoped) they were to reduce their portfolios by 10% a year "eventually stabilizing at a lower, less risky size."
The second part was setting up Preferred Stock Purchase Agreements that would put government money into Fannie and Freddie to "support market stability" and reassure GSE MBS investors that these companies would remain solvent. This was to avoid a meltdown in GSE debt that would affect not only the U.S. but also the world.
Remember how we learned that preferred stock trumps common stock? In this case, government-purchased stock trumped everything. That's because government money is our money and we're pretty darn important, after all.
The third part was setting up a line of credit for all the GSEs to "serve as the ultimate liquidity backstop," another effort to reassure investors that Uncle Sam wasn't moving out.
The fourth part was that Treasury would initiate a temporary program to purchase GSE MBS now that the appetite for risk had virtually disappeared. This would ensure that the GSEs had the capital to buy mortgages. It should also lower mortgage rates, so people would buy homes, if they were willing to buy in a market with constantly falling prices. The U.S. government could be patient and hold the GSE MBS until the market recovered and then sell them, hopefully not losing any taxpayer money at all.
Every step was intended to expire 16 months later, in December 2009. Between now and then, Hank said Congress needed to, finally, finally, figure out what to do with Fannie and Freddie. Hank called it a "time out" to clean up the wreck, sweep the highway and then repave it for a smoother road ahead:
Because the GSEs are Congressionally-chartered, only Congress can address the inherent conflict of attempting to serve both shareholders and a public mission. The new Congress and the next Administration must decide what role government in general, and these entities in particular, should play in the housing market. … We will make a grave error if we don't use this time out to permanently address the structural issues presented by the GSEs.
The government now owned 79.9% of both company's stock and both companies' CEOs lost their jobs. It seems we also set a precedent for future government action in response to systemic risk.
Now, we've learned about conservatorship and it'll be useful to remember what it is and what it is not. It's not nationalization—which is what Truman tried with the steel mills, the government seizing all assets, operations and controlling the companies from A to Z. It seems close, but there is a legal difference. It's also not bankruptcy, which would have put Fannie and Freddie in the hands of a judge to liquidate or sell assets.
We held our breath for reaction, thinking the Fannie and Freddie take-over would be the biggest financial news of the year. It was until Lehman Brothers reported its' dreaded third quarter earnings a few days later.
Hank would say he was racing against the calendar. He didn't know whether markets could bear the combination of unstable Fannie and Freddie and an extremely distressed Lehman, so he wanted to stabilize the GSEs just in case. Turns out, the markets couldn't bear either.
September 8–12, 2008
We were greeted on Monday, September 8, with fleeting smiles. The Dow went up, and Obama and McCain agreed with the Fannie and Freddie takeover. But how long is fleeting in markets on the verge of a breakdown? About 24 hours.
The takeover made the fear of dilution come true, but was even worse. Investors didn't sigh with relief; they expected the share prices to fall even more. If there was any money to be made from owning Fannie and Freddie stock, it would be made by you and me, the taxpayer.
The markets were, as Hank told National Public Radio "increasingly jittery." They didn't know how to predict the future. The government was now three for three; it had kept Bear Stearns, Fannie and Freddie afloat. Some wizards wondered if that was the limit and government would rescue no more. At the same time, they wondered how we could possibly not rescue the most likely next failure, Lehman Brothers.
The big economic picture was unpredictable, too. For the eight months ended in August, we'd lost 600,000 jobs and the unemployment rate was up to 6.1%.
Markets continued to punish Lehman; its shares dropped 45% on Tuesday and closed below $8.00 per share, a more than 90% drop from its 2007 high of over $86. Then their dreaded earnings announcement came Wednesday, September 10. Lehman had a third quarter loss of almost $4 billion and had written down $6 billion of assets. Now they were scrambling; they said they would spin off holdings and sell divisions to raise capital. This time they'd really do it. They were looking for a buyer, any buyer, a lifeline, any lifeline. It was too late.
So they did what every bank in trouble was learning to do—ask the federal government for help. Lehman and potential buyers began to negotiate with the Federal Reserve for about $40 billion in loans against Lehman's assets, replicating the deal given to JPMorgan Chase to buy Bear Stearns. Hank made it known "on background" that he would not support using taxpayer money this time. Lehman staggered to Friday and closed at $3.65.
And while wondering how to solve a problem like Maria, er, Lehman Brothers, it was time to solve a problem like AIG which was imploding at the same time.
In the first six months of the year, AIG had raised $20 billion but lost over $13 billion. By Friday afternoon, credit ratings agencies, now gripped in fervor of prudence, were saying they would probably lower AIG's credit rating by Monday morning. If this happened, AIG would need to raise over $10 billion almost immediately. And a lower credit rating would mean AIG's counterparties could cancel contracts and demand payment, meaning billions more in payments would also be due right away.
AIG's stock closed down 50% for the week, making a credit rating downgrade likely and raising cash unlikely—¿ay! caramba.
The Weekend of September 13–14, 2008
So, we reached Friday, September 12, with Lehman and AIG paddling in circles hoping to find dry land. New York Fed President Geithner called a meeting of the financial wizards and financial G-men, including Hank and SEC Chairman Chris Cox to try to sell Lehman or make a plan to untie the counterparty knots and trades if Lehman went BK.
This was a much more dramatic replay of the Bear Stearns March weekend. Black town cars idled outside the New York Fed while inside men-in-ties wrestled with another financial melee. Even if the option for a Fed loan to Lehman was on the table, which it was for a time, there wasn't a buyer or enough assets to collateralize a loan as there had been for Bear Stearns. As I heard Hank say time and again, "The hole was too big."
The common and conventional wisdom is that Hank could have saved Lehman but didn't. If they saved Bear Stearns, why not Lehman? Because, as we've learned, the Fed has to have sufficient collateral to make a loan. Lehman didn't have the assets, the hole was too big and there wasn't even a buyer to negotiate with; every possible buyer walked away during this weekend.
This how Hank described it in a November speech at the Reagan Library:
Lehman Brothers Unable to Solve its Problems
There had been rumors of Lehman's potential failure all summer and Lehman had been searching, without success, for a buyer or other solutions to the serious problems they were facing. I had monitored these efforts closely, and as the company reached a critical moment, Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, New York Fed President Tim Geithner, SEC Chairman Chris Cox and I sought to do everything we could to avert a Lehman failure. We gathered industry leaders the weekend of September 13th to explore all possible options. I was actively engaged in the process as we encouraged two potential buyers to make offers. Each examined Lehman's books, but neither was willing to go forward without off-loading billions of dollars of assets that they considered had substantial unrealized losses.
Treasury and the Federal Reserve had no authority to resolve this problem. Federal law, and in particular the Anti-Deficiency Act, prohibits Treasury from spending money, lending money, and guaranteeing or buying assets without Congressional approval. The Federal Reserve can and does lend on a secured basis, but only if it expects not to realize losses. The Fed couldn't legally lend against the Lehman assets if it expected that loan to result in a loss of any size; this was much different than the case with Bear Stearns.
I tried to put together an industry consortium to facilitate the transaction by purchasing the off-loaded assets, but once the potential buyer failed to obtain regulatory approval, the entire transaction disappeared. Without any federal authority to intervene, we had no choice but to do everything possible to try to mitigate the consequences of a Lehman failure.
In December, I had dinner in New York with Rick and Marty, two Stanford classmates. Rick still had a job on Wall Street. He said over and over again that Hank "should have saved" Lehman.
I patiently explained that the Fed couldn't lend without sufficient collateral.
"We've heard that, but nobody believes it," Rick said.
AIG's problems also came to a head during this same weekend. This is how Hank described it in the Reagan Library speech:
That weekend, the management of the nation's largest insurance company, AIG, also informed us that they faced an imminent bankruptcy. AIG's businesses were intertwined throughout the global financial system. Because AIG's underlying insurance companies had value, the Fed could use its authority to make a fully secured loan to AIG. By doing so, it prevented a systemic disruption that would have been an order of magnitude far greater than the Lehman failure.
To this day; Hank is criticized for founding "bailout nation" and also criticized for not bailing out Lehman:
Some have chosen to scapegoat the Lehman failure as the cause of the deepening crisis in September, as opposed to a symptom. That is at best naïve, and at worst disingenuous. The U.S. government had no authority to rescue Lehman Brothers. Even if Lehman had been acquired, it would not have averted the virtually simultaneous collapse of AIG, or the collapse of Washington Mutual, or the wave of failures that European governments stepped in to avert shortly thereafter.
Even if there had been a way to plug the Lehman hole, by now the crisis was self-perpetuating. Hank would say Lehman's failure was a symptom, not the cause, of a year-long financial squeeze that turned into a crisis. If they had been a buyer for Lehman, the drama and fear would have found another target, and then another.
As the weekend progressed, and Lehman couldn't find a buyer, Merrill Lynch realized the next bull's-eye was on its back. So Merrill jumped into the arms of a willing buyer, Bank of America.
By afternoon on Sunday, September 14, the wizards knew Lehman wouldn't survive; they'd have to disconnect the interconnected as quickly as possible. Out came the duct tape and bailing wire.
The SEC issued a statement to reassure investors that their securities accounts were insured with SIPC insurance, kind of like FDIC insurance for brokerage accounts. The Fed reopened the liquidity spigot, agreeing to accept lower-quality assets as collateral from primary dealers "in the wake of an unwinding of a major financial institution."
What were the direct risks of Lehman's failure to you and me? If we had a retail brokerage account and cash at Lehman, the SEC was reminding us that Lehman, as a broker-dealer—they were both a broker who sold securities to customers and a dealer who traded securities for its own account (Eureka! broker-dealer) —had SIPC insurance for our cash. And if we held stock or mutual funds, those securities are in our name and can't be seized by other creditors. We were exposed through mutual, 401(k) and pension funds that held Lehman stocks, bonds and securities; once Lehman filed BK those would become virtually worthless.
The third part of the Sunday plan came from the private sector. A global consortium of regular and investment banks established a $70 billion fund to self-supply liquidity if needed. And they opened the OTC derivatives market that afternoon to start unwinding Lehman's contracts and pending trades.
Hank issued a statement and said, "Today we are looking forward."
Yes, we were looking forward, but—holy cow!—we didn't imagine what we would see.
September 15–19, 2008
The week in headlines:
Monday, September 15:
The Wall Street Journal, "Crisis on Wall Street as Lehman Totters, Merrill is Sold, AIG Seeks to Raise Cash"
The New York Times, "Bids to Halt Financial Crisis Reshape Landscape of Wall St."
Tuesday, September 16:
The New York Times, "Wall St. in Worst Loss Since '01 Despite Reassurances by Bush"
The Washington Post, "Stocks Plunge as Crisis Intensifies"
The Wall Street Journal, "AIG, Lehman Shock Hits World Markets"
Wednesday, September 17:
The Wall Street Journal, "U.S. to Take Over AIG in $85 Billion Bailout; Central Banks Inject Cash as Credit Dries Up"
The Wall Street Journal, "Lending Among Banks Freezes"
The Washington Post, "U.S. Seizes Control of AIG With $85 Billion Emergency Loan"
Thursday, September 18:
The Wall Street Journal, "Mounting Fears Shake World Markets As Banking Giants Rush to Raise Capital"
The Wall Street Journal, "Worst Crisis since '30s, With No End Yet in Sight"
The Wall Street Journal, Money & Investing, "Dow Falls 449.36 as AIG Rescue Rattles Investors"
The Washington Post, "Markets in Disarray as Lending Locks Up; Federal Intervention Fails to Stem Crisis of Confidence on Wall Street"
Financial Times, "Credit panic hits historic levels; Lending between banks grinds to halt; U.S. Treasury yields lowest since 1941"
The New York Times, "New Phase in Finance Crisis as Investors Run to Safety"
Friday, September 19:
The Wall Street Journal, "U.S. Drafts Sweeping Plan to Fight Crisis As Turmoil Worsens in Credit Markets; Paulson Briefs Congress on Idea to Buy Bad Assets From Banks, Insure Money-Market Funds; Stocks Rebound Sharply"
The Washington Post, "Citing Grave Financial Threats, Officials Ready Massive Rescue"
Financial Times, "Push for Crisis Breakthrough"
Historic events usually have pictures—floodwaters, handshakes of peace, buildings destroyed by tornado or fire. Even in a relationship there's that look or turn of the head that you'll later remember as a signal of what was to come. The best we got from this crisis were pictures of stunned men staring at computer screens. The numbers and charts reminded us of math class, which we didn't really like. We couldn't feel pain or muster tears, at least not right away.
Despite Sunday's reassurances, stock markets and Cred-Mart went into extreme crisis on Monday, September 15. This was also the last day that McCain–Palin ever led Obama–Biden in the public opinion polls. Maybe the wizards had been certain that the government would save Lehman. Or maybe, as we would see with AIG, they weren't sure there was a master plan for who could or couldn't fail. At this point, there wasn't.
"It was bigger than anybody anticipated," Hank would say. "We didn't have a playbook."
Lehman's bankruptcy was the final jolt that turned a financial squeeze into a freeze and risk aversion into risk paranoia. And it was a stellar example, not that we needed one, of unintended consequences.
Lehman's bankruptcy on Monday morning froze billions of dollars around the world. Investment banks have gone bankrupt before, in less complex markets, before the onset of the -ations—securitization, globalization and integration—and the enormous growth of derivatives, hedge and private equity funds. As a primary dealer and a broker-dealer, Lehman handled billions of dollars in transit, and the BK immediately froze money that was supposed to execute, close or clear trades. The other side of those trades then froze, also. Investors panicked that another firm could fail any minute, and the government wasn't rescuing anybody anymore. The true price of moral hazard was being paid. So they pulled money out wherever they could, out of trades, money market funds, securities and investments. The wizards simply stopped doing business if they could.
By the end of the day, the credit ratings agencies also made good on their threat to downgrade AIG. So AIG had to come up with at least $10 billion in collateral for counterparties, and faced likely write-downs that meant they'd need tens of billions more, and AIG's pockets were empty. AIG was also facing BK.
Call Lehman the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and AIG the fire that burned the rest of the city. Or call it, as many did, the perfect storm that would smash investors large and small.
The Dow fell 500 points on Monday. It rallied on Tuesday because investors believed the government had to save AIG, because it was not only massively larger than Lehman, it was massively more interconnected. An AIG bankruptcy could mean real chaos, as if we weren't seeing chaos already. Some think Hank and Ben overreacted to the idea of an AIG bankruptcy and the potential systemic risk. They say markets would have sorted it out. Well, yeah, they did a great job sorting out Lehman, didn't they? But, yes, likely, eventually, probably, markets would have sorted it all out without any government intervention. But what sort of financial destruction would have happened in the meantime? How could they take that risk?
Luckily, AIG had about $1 trillion of assets to collateralize a Fed loan. And so I, like you, woke Wednesday morning to the news of intervention number four—the Fed made an $85 billion collateralized loan to AIG, and would own precisely 79.9% of the company.
You saw that 79.9% ownership number for Fannie and Freddie, too: that's not a coincidence. If the government owned 80%, the U.S. balance sheet would have to reflect the liabilities of the fallen company. For example, that would have meant adding $5 trillion in Fannie and Freddie obligations to our national debt. We pretty much owe it anyway if they fail, but that's an if, so it's off the balance sheet, sort of like shadow debt.
What we needed and didn't have for Lehman or AIG was the orderly wind-down authority Hank talked about in the spring, perhaps a new chapter in the bankruptcy code specifically written to deal with complex financial companies. We needed something, but we had nada.
Who would imagine that the Fed rescue of AIG would only make things worse? Wait, you don't have to imagine, you saw. Even if they were only numbers, you saw them written in red.
Since we've learned all about Cred-Mart and that the financial system is like our electrical grid for money, we will understand how the system unraveled this week and led Hank and Ben to warn of financial Armageddon. Yes, the stock market whipsawed up and down but the big drama was in the aisles down at Cred-Mart. All the leverage, all the reliance on volatile, short-term debt that had brought so much profit would now bring so much pain.
Corporate borrowing essentially stopped. Commercial paper—the short-term debt corporations issue to fund working capital, things that matter to us, like payroll and inventory—issuance fell from $14 billion to about $2 billion in this one week, and the total outstanding fell by $50 billion. The cost to borrow through commercial paper more than doubled within two days. It was the Cred-Mart version of $4.00 for a gallon of gas.
The repo market and long-term investment essentially stopped; companies borrowed for today and maybe tomorrow. Job losses began almost immediately. This September there were 2,290 mass layoff "events," companies firing more than 50 workers at a time. It was the largest number since the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
The TED spread went over 3%, the highest show of market fear and stress in over twenty years. Treasury yields fell to almost zero as investors fled to safe investments, while LIBOR kept climbing, reflecting banks' fear of lending to one another. Nobody wanted to be a lender in case the lendee—another bank—failed suddenly, which seemed all too possible. The short sellers were still driving down stock prices to profit from panic. The two remaining big investment banks, Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs, were now extremely vulnerable, and especially Morgan Stanley was in peril.
And remember our money market mutual funds where $1 invested was always worth $1? Suddenly, not true. For the second time in history, a mutual fund "broke the buck." The Primary Reserve Fund held bunches of Lehman bonds and, in the wake of Lehman's BK, its per-share value fell below $1 (Eureka! broke the buck). By the end of Wednesday, investors had pulled almost $300 billion out of money market funds, rather than risk losing money there, too. And you were at risk here—this was real money, your investment and savings accounts, not fancy concoctions or structured products.
The panic oozed and spread like hot lava to burn investments of all kinds. Rather than endure the run, one $12 billion fund simply closed.
The only safe place seemed to be the U.S. government aisle, and so investors bought Treasuries. Treasury bills, notes and bonds are sold in auctions, and in normal times you pay less than the face value, i.e. $98 for a $100 T-bill, and that $2 represents your return. Now people were paying $100 for a $100 T-bill, willing to earn no return in exchange for just having a safe place to park their money, where they knew they wouldn't lose it.
The AIG rescue didn't bring calm, and the Dow fell by almost 500 points again on Wednesday. The market sold off when Lehman failed, and sold off when AIG was rescued. Go figure. Washington Mutual and Wachovia were also spinning downward and needed to raise cash, badly.
Treasury announced a supplementary financing program to auction more Treasury bills to meet demand and to restore stability in money market funds.
But Thursday's Washington Post headline, "Federal Intervention Fails to Stem Crisis of Confidence on Wall Street," said it all.
I dutifully wrote Hank's two scheduled speeches for this week, but he canceled them. Michele still held morning staff meetings, but they were interrupted by Hank coming in to her office, or calling her down to his. So I spent this week a lot like you—confused, watching, wondering and worrying. I think Hank was on the front page of every newspaper in the land, and I heard from friends who said "hang in there" and "can't imagine how tough this is." I mostly replied with a quick "thanks," rather than admit I didn't know, or understand, much more than they did.
The halls at Treasury were quiet; behind closed doors it was busy, stressful and frantic. There was nothing I could do, no words needed to be written. I greeted Alexander Hamilton every morning as I walked up the steps; he still didn't answer. After a few hours staring at the television, watching tickers that said "crisis, crisis, crisis" I went outside and sat on the benches of Lafayette Park across the street from the White House. I watched protestors with bullhorns warn of environmental doom and considered shouting back that doom was much closer than a possibly melting ice cap, but didn't.
And I kept my TED spread high by walking the chocolate circuit, stopping in all the third floor offices where the assistants offered M&Ms and miniature candy bars. I'd smile or grunt—nobody was really smiling this week—pick out my favorite chocolates and eat them as I walked down the hall to the next office where I'd find more. I didn't tell anybody how scared I was, for my own savings, for my retired parents, for my brothers trying to finance college tuitions. I couldn't sell any stocks or do anything to save my own finances, it might look like I was trading on inside information even though I wasn't. I did withdraw lots of cashola from my bank and put it in a drawer. Little Eva still wanted a walk every morning and night; while she is the most loving of all creatures, she is also a tyrant who won't tolerate a change in her routine. Even dogs would feel the crisis eventually, as owners who couldn't or wouldn't afford to feed them gave them to shelters or left them on roadsides.
Pundits and politicians couldn't restrain themselves, and fingers were already pointing blame, making gleeful predictions about the death of capitalism and Wall Street, "I told you so's" about too much or too little regulation, and the supposed crime of mark to market. It was far more complex than anybody could explain in a three-minute blurb, and as a nation we've learned our politics well: we seek to blame rather than understand. I secretly hoped Mr. Rogers would arrive, put on his sweater and tell us it was a beautiful day in the neighborhood, but then someone would have pointed at him and shouted "Liar!"
I do think President Bush's speeches during this time were clear and helpful, if anyone took the time to read them. But they were reported as so much about Bush always was—as if he were a criminal trying to justify his crimes.
In the days after 9/11 attacks, the press and politicians took a holiday from blame and bias. It helped unite as a nation. We could have used that now, too, but this was about money and power, much harder to understand than bombs or death and much easier to stoke with populism, especially with a presidential election only six weeks away.
As Hank said "it was historic." Not historic as in the eventual triumph of D-Day or the invention of the microchip; historic as in everything after this week would be harder than the week before.
On Thursday, the Fed used a power tool and made another $180 billion available to other countries' central banks, to pump U.S. dollars into the system, to try to get the credit flowing that banks and companies needed to survive.
The United Kingdom banned the short selling of financial stocks. The SEC did the same on September 19. Short sellers covered their shorts and the market went up almost 800 points over two days. Hank described this week in the November Reagan Library speech:
Financial Crisis hits the United States and the World
By mid-September, after 13 months of market stress, the financial system essentially seized up and we had a system-wide crisis. Credit markets froze and banks substantially reduced interbank lending. Confidence was seriously compromised throughout our financial system. Our system was on the verge of collapse, a collapse that would have significantly worsened and prolonged the economic downturn that was already underway.
That was the background against which Chairman Bernanke and I met with the Congressional bipartisan leadership to request emergency legislation. We needed the financial rescue package so we could intervene, stabilize our financial system, and minimize further damage to our economy.
Our crisis was the world's crisis, too. Trading in Russian stock markets was suspended this week, and reopened after Moscow pumped money into banks and companies. The UK government swept aside competition rules to allow Lloyd's to takeover Britain's largest mortgage lender HBOS, rather than have HBOS become their second victim of the crisis. Shares in Australia's biggest investment bank plunged over fears that the crisis would restrict access to debt needed to feed its business model. And Iceland, well, the tiny island of Iceland had basically bet its entire economy on fancy concoctions and was almost melting into the sea.
By Thursday, cataclysm seemed upon us. The problems were huge, and the solution needed to be huge, too. Until this point, Hank would admit they were whacking each mole as it popped up—Lehman, AIG, the breaking of the buck. This was criticized as having no strategy and, well, that was kind of correct. It was either watch and weep or rescue and resuscitate.
So what was the solution, short of shutting down banks and markets like after 9/11 or during the panic of the Depression? Going back to beginning—the original source of our troubles was the burst of the housing bubble that then shattered the values of all the fancy MBS clogging up bank balance sheets. The leverage, the lack of confidence, the high consumer debt also contributed, but you can't fix those long-term structural problems in the midst of a crisis. So the logical strategy seemed to be the plan sketched out in March after Bear Stearns, to get authority from Congress to buy the MBS, get them out of the system so banks were stable again. The government could hold the MBS while the market recovered and then, sometime later, sell them. Maybe even at a profit.
Hank and Ben confirmed the plan with President Bush and Treasury started to talk about it on Thursday the 18th. The press called it the "RTC-type" solution, referring back to the Resolution Trust Corporation that sold the real estate assets held by insolvent Savings and Loans in the 1980s and early 1990s. This seemed to calm markets and we stopped eating our young, at least for a day or two.
That night, Hank and Ben then went up to Capitol Hill. In a closed-door meeting they told congressional leadership that we were facing another Depression, or worse, if we didn't use a blowtorch to thaw the frozen credit markets. At some point Ben said that there might not be an economy on Monday without this plan.
The Friday morning papers showed photos of stunned, ashen faces after the meeting—Hank, Ben, Pelosi, Reid, Boehner and always, everywhere, the ubiquitous Chuck Schumer—gathered in a shock and unity. The unity wouldn't last very long.
Thursday night, we drafted Hank's Friday morning statement to explain the plan and the White House drafted President Bush's remarks. The President spoke first on Friday:
Our system of free enterprise rests on the conviction that the federal government should interfere in the marketplace only when necessary. Given the precarious state of today's financial markets—and their vital importance to the daily lives of the American people—government intervention is not only warranted, it is essential.
In recent weeks, the federal government has taken a series of measures to help promote stability in the overall economy… But more action is needed…
Secretary Paulson, Chairman Bernanke, and Chairman Cox have briefed leaders on Capitol Hill on the urgent need for Congress to pass legislation approving the federal government's purchase of illiquid assets, such as troubled mortgages, from banks and other financial institutions … It will allow them to resume lending and get our financial system moving again.
Hank's statement explained, again, the source of our problems and then he explained the plan:
The federal government must implement a program to remove these illiquid assets that are weighing down our financial institutions and threatening our economy. This troubled asset relief program must be properly designed and sufficiently large to have maximum impact, while including features that protect the taxpayer to the maximum extent possible. The ultimate taxpayer protection will be the stability this troubled asset relief program provides to our financial system, even as it will involve a significant investment of taxpayer dollars. I am convinced that this bold approach will cost American families far less than the alternative—a continuing series of financial institution failures and frozen credit markets unable to fund economic expansion.
As Hank spoke, the world listened, wizards cheered and bought stock. A trader said the trading floor was "pin drop silent." My New York friend Marty forwarded a fake news story via email:
Subject: Bloomberg update encapsulates the week.
*U.S. Treasury to ensure good weather all weekend. *U.S. Treasury to insure personal happiness. *Paulson says to guarantee all marriages against strife.
Announcing a plan is far from passing or implementing it, however, and we needed more duct tape and bailing wire in the meantime. So the Fed went to work again. It created the Asset-Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (Eureka! AMLF) to finance bank purchases of high-quality asset-backed commercial paper from money market mutual funds. It also announced that it would purchase short-term GSE debt from primary dealers.
Hank authorized $50 billion from the Treasury's Exchange Stabilization Fund to guarantee money market mutual funds, to stop the wild outflow that was breaking the buck and threatening your cashola.
The end of this day brings us back to our first scene, Friday evening in Hank's office: the end of five days of finance and trauma we'd hope to never see again (we would). We had about 48 hours before the Asian markets opened on Sunday to put meat on the bones of the plan.
Hank paced his office, asking "how much" to buy those troubled MBS? We couldn't buy them all but what number would be enough to make a dent, to stabilize the banks and also pass Congress? There were an estimated $1 trillion of MBS and CDOs sitting on bank balance sheets; someone suggested asking for $500 billion, someone suggested $750 billion; someone said maybe it needed to be a percentage. Hank said it must be meaningful and quick; in the end, $700 billion seemed enough to do the job.
So while the world exhaled this weekend, the smart gang at Treasury started drafting the language we had promised to Congress. For the next two weeks they would pretty much live in their offices, trying to soothe the markets, the politicians and you, the people. I drove home later that evening, and did my own pacing and calculating. I couldn't settle down and stop thinking and worrying. And I was sad, too.
My very good friend Lauren got married this weekend in California and in the middle of the week, I had canceled my trip. For 20 years Lauren has helped me laugh even as I cried and never, ever let me down. She was a 48-year-old first-time bride marrying a wonderful man, and instead of being with her I was drafting Hank's testimony for congressional hearings about the plan. Those damn wizards had done more than wreck the financial system; they had made me miss my friend's wedding.
September 20–30, 2008
Going into this weekend we still had two major investment banks. By the end of the weekend the final white shoe dropped; 100 years of Wall Street was no more. The Fed approved Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs's applications to become regular bank holding companies, like a Citigroup or a JPMorgan Chase, subject to FDIC regulations. The Morgan Stanley statement cited "rapid and profound changes" in the financial marketplace and that the change offered "certainty about the strength of our financial position and access to funding." That is, in the midst of the freeze they needed the shelter of borrowing from the Fed.
The Saturday/Sunday Financial Times front page showed a jagged down-up-down graph of the S&P index since September 15, superimposed over a photo of Hank with the headline "Global markets roar in approval."
And the sub-headline: "Paulson says strategy cheaper than failures."
This point was lost over the next nine days as many of you grew furious at continuing "bailouts." Fueled by politicians, pundits and your own common sense, you didn't like transferring your hard-earned taxpayer money to Wall Street, which seemed neither deserving nor appreciative.
For what it's worth, nobody wanted to reward those who brought on this mess but, as my dad used to say, it doesn't make sense to cut off your nose to spite your face. The banks were like the power company—we needed them to work, plain and simple. This wasn't a plan to engineer economic recovery; it was a plan to avert disaster and get credit, the basic financial electricity, flowing again.
On Saturday, September 20, Treasury sent a three-page outline for what is now not so fondly known as the $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (Eureka! TARP) to Congress. We also released a public fact sheet with the five main points:
Scale and Timing of Asset Purchases. Treasury will have authority to issue up to $700 billion of Treasury securities to finance the purchase of troubled assets. The purchases are intended to be residential and commercial mortgage-related assets, which may include mortgage-backed securities and whole loans. The Secretary will have the discretion, in consultation with the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, to purchase other assets, as deemed necessary to effectively stabilize financial markets… The price of assets purchases will be established through market mechanisms where possible, such as reverse auctions. The dollar cap will be measured by the purchase price of the assets. The authority to purchase expires two years from date of enactment.
Asset and Institutional Eligibility for the Program. To qualify for the program, assets must have been originated or issued on or before September 17, 2008. Participating financial institutions must have significant operations in the U.S., unless the Secretary makes a determination, in consultation with the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, that broader eligibility is necessary to effectively stabilize financial markets.
Management and Disposition of the Assets. The assets will be managed by private asset managers at the direction of Treasury to meet program objectives. Treasury will have full discretion over the management of the assets as well as the exercise of any rights received in connection with the purchase of the assets.
Funding. Funding for the program will be provided directly by Treasury from its general fund.
Reporting. Within three months of the first asset purchases under the program, and semi-annually thereafter, Treasury will provide the appropriate Congressional committees with regular updates on the program.
Until this point, we'd done a fair job managing the message; now the message started to manage, i.e. pummel, us. We got in trouble for what was and was not in our proposal and for how we did and did not explain the crisis' cause and effect. Our $700 billion proposal was huge and astonishing, equal to about 20% of the annual federal budget. Congress worked all year on the budget and often couldn't even pass it; Hank wanted them to approve TARP within days.
And he wanted this massive spending for something that few understood or could see. As David Nason would say later, we asked for $700 billion and couldn't provide anything besides a chart to show why it was important.
Many of us didn't understand Cred-Mart or the whole financial system because until it broke down, we never needed to.
But action was needed and soon. To Hammerin' Hank, soon is today; Congress's soon is often like the ambiguous way your parents meant "when I'm good and ready." After being on the sidelines while Treasury and the Fed had taken action—all the way back to Bear Stearns—Congress was going to, as they should in a democracy, have their say. And so we had hearings, debate and blame.
There was outrage at the three-page outline, but as Hank explained during Senate testimony three days later, Congress said they didn't want Treasury to write the bill:
When we all met Thursday night—as you'll recall, Chairman—with the leaders of Congress, you all said to us: Don't give us a fait accompli. Come in and work with us.
We gave you a simple, three-page legislative outline. And I thought it would have been presumptuous for us on that outline to come up with an oversight mechanism. That's the role of Congress. That's something we're going to work on together.
This point was conveniently forgotten time and again. It became another legend that Hank asked for—dare I say— "czar" powers to do anything he wanted, no questions asked, with $700 billion. Newsweek put Hank on the cover with the headline "King Henry." All this undermined Hank's reputation, and we didn't help much when we didn't use the right or enough words to explain what we wanted to do and why.
One anonymous "powerful democrat" said that this was a Bush Administration plan to protect the bonuses of investment bankers. I wish someone had reminded him that most of Wall Street was head over heels for Obama. Former Speaker Gingrich was opposed. He and others blamed the problem mostly on mark-to-market valuations, as if moving the decimal point on balance sheets would fix everything.
And then of course, Election Day loomed. Obama supported the plan; he said, we "must take further bold and decisive action to shore up confidence." McCain offered his own plan for a specific RTC-like structure, and said, "It will not do to keep making it up as we go along."
We needed to explain why buying MBS assets would work. We had to explain how we could discover the right price, a price that was fair to the taxpayer, that didn't further erode bank capital but also didn't set up windfall profits for future investors (Eureka! price discovery). Oh, it was complicated. We also had to explain why $700 billion was needed when, sure, the economy wasn't great but it didn't seem $700 billion worth of bad. In short, the country needed a primer on very complicated principles of economics and finance in about a nanosecond. Congressman La Tourette of Ohio described it very well in a question at a House Financial Services Committee hearing on September 24:
In about an hour, there is going to be a guy in Cleveland, Ohio, who comes home from work and sits on his couch, and he is mad … he doesn't understand
… If we don't do this, is he going to have a job, can he buy a car? If he goes to the ATM, is his credit card going to work? The time has come. Over the weekend, all the leadership left the White House, they were all ashen faced and using words like Armageddon. I haven't heard Armageddon. I need you to tell that guy on his couch when he watches the 6 o'clock news what happens to him, not to the markets, not to the guys on Wall Street; to him. Is he going to be out of a job, is his daughter not going to college, and is he going to drive the car he is driving now for the next 20 years?
This was a recurring plea—explain to us why we should be scared to death so we can do what you say we need to do.
Hank answered:
I would just say that he should be angry and he should be scared. I think right now he is more angry than he is scared. It puts us in a difficult position because no one likes to be painting an overly dire picture and scaring people. But the fact is that if the financial markets are not stabilized, the situation can be very severe as it relates to not just his current situation, but keeping his job, his retirement account, investment in equities and securities, his ability to borrow. So this is a serious situation, and it is one he should be concerned about, and we need to figure out how to communicate better.
But we didn't communicate or explain better. We wanted to, we said we would, but it was complicated, there were a dozen bombs in the air about to fall and explode and we didn't realize the ongoing public relations disaster as we focused more on implementing the solution instead of explaining it. And there were multiple audiences. Hank wasn't just talking to you, he also had to reassure U.S. and world financial markets, and U.S. and world leaders. Multiple audiences demanding multiple explanations. Even if you did understand, you remained angry and said what my friend Rick said about saving Lehman: "We've heard that, but nobody believes it."
By mid-week the whole plan was in trouble. On Monday, the market had closed down 379 points. We were getting used to these wide swings in trading ranges (Eureka! volatility) but the Dow had never swung up and down by over 350 points four days in a row before.
Republicans felt we were jamming the plan down their throat. They said Bush and Hank were veering close to the S-word, socialism. House Republicans offered a plan with less government money and interference. Democrats wanted to cut executive pay, penalize "corporate fat cats" and "cowboy capitalists" and do more to help homeowners. This included attaching a provision we had long fought against, to allow judges to modify mortgages during personal bankruptcies. Newspapers reported "feuds on Capitol Hill" and that "investors fretted about the pace of negotiations."
And while you objected to the cost and the debt it would mean for your children and grandchildren, Hank told the Senate Banking Committee you were
…already on the hook. The taxpayer already is going to suffer the consequence if things don't work the way they should work. And so the best protection for the taxpayer, and the first protection for the taxpayer, is to have this work.
Republicans did come to agree that if a company received government money it ought to limit executive pay, but they still didn't like TARP or its price tag. Hank knew:
The American people are angry about executive compensation and rightfully so. Many of you cite this as a serious problem, and I agree. We must find a way to address this issue in this legislation, without undermining the effectiveness of the program…
People in this country understand pay-for-performance, for success. That is the American Dream. No one understands pay-for-failure.
During the House Financial Services Committee hearing, there were many questions about why, if the point was to support bank balance sheets, Treasury didn't just inject capital by buying stock, which seemed a more direct solution. The only model the world had seen for capital injections in a collapsing financial system had been in Japan when, as Hank explained during the hearing, the Japanese government put in capital and pretty much also took control:
There are a number of plans that say let us go to the root of the problem, let us just put capital into those institutions which we think are troubled … when you put capital in, that is the Japanese solution, they were in a very long recession for many years, but what they did is they came in, put capital in the banks, and then the government is essentially in many ways running them. …
We are trying to take a different approach … this is a different situation than anything you can find historically. What we are trying to do is have price discovery on illiquid assets, and then that encourages private capital to follow and it makes it possible for the banks to recapitalize themselves … [investors] right now are concerned about putting capital in because they don't trust the balance sheets and they have concerns about what these assets are worth.
Eventually we would put in capital directly, but not the Japanese way. It would seem like a complete reversal of what Hank said here, but it wasn't. The smart gang at Treasury figured a way to capitalize the banks without nationalizing them, too. But there were many miles to travel before we got there.
The Wall Street Journal chided Hank's "dour salesmanship," and it is true. Times were dour and he couldn't suddenly morph from Hammer into handmaiden. To those who knew that times required more than smooth talk and style, Hank was praised as "tenacious" and that "no one [was] better suited for the job."
On Wednesday, September 24, control gave way to chaos. Enough doubts had been raised about the plan, the cost, the inequity, the urgency, that it seemed doomed to a slow, painful death. This afternoon McCain suspended his campaign and returned to Washington. He called on President Bush to convene a meeting with him, Obama and congressional leadership "to come together to solve this problem." Obama agreed that "there's no reason why we can't be constructive in helping to solve this problem."
Ben testified before the Joint Economic Committee that deteriorating lending conditions, i.e. bad times at Cred-Mart, posed a "grave threat" to the economy. And LIBOR, that interbank lending rate, kept rising, meaning banks were still suffering from high heebie jeebies.
President Bush addressed the nation on Wednesday night and explained the causes, again. He answered those Republicans who were whispering the S-word and those Democrats who were blaming the problem on reckless Bush policies with a firm defense of both capitalism and America:
With the situation becoming more precarious by the day, I faced a choice, to step in with dramatic government action or to stand back and allow the irresponsible actions of some to undermine the financial security of all.
I'm a strong believer in free enterprise, so my natural instinct is to oppose government intervention. I believe companies that make bad decisions should be allowed to go out of business.
Under normal circumstances, I would have followed this course. But these are not normal circumstances. The market is not functioning properly. There has been a widespread loss of confidence, and major sectors of America's financial system are at risk of shutting down…
In the long run, Americans have good reason to be confident in our economic strength. Despite corrections in the marketplace and instances of abuse, democratic capitalism is the best system ever devised.
The much-wanted and needed White House meeting between the President and congressional leaders took place on Thursday, September 25. There was lots of talk and impressive photos of men-in-ties and Speaker Pelosi at the Cabinet table, but negotiations were still "in disarray," "faltering" and "unresolved."
On Friday the crisis got a little scarier when the FDIC seized $307 billion Washington Mutual and sold it to JPMorgan Chase for about $2 billion. WaMu's failure was ten times the size of IndyMac bank and the largest U.S. bank failure by far, ever. If that wasn't a sign of things to come, what was?
Legislative negotiations continued through the weekend, out of the sight of cameras but with reporters hovering and staff and Members of Congress leaking details when it was convenient. At one point, they took away everyone's Blackberry to stop the leaks and there were arguments, shouting and pouting.
Then, in the early hours of Sunday morning the 28th they reached an agreement on a $700 billion bill—just four days after Hank and Ben asked for the legislation. It was happening so fast, which we wanted, but it was so fast you were a little suspicious. The House would vote on Monday, and leaders don't usually schedule a vote unless they're pretty sure the bill will pass.
It was a tough vote for some Republicans, but the Democrats wanted the GOP to be on the hook, too. They said that since President Bush's "reckless policies" caused the crisis, his party ought to vote for the President's proposed solution.
Speaker Pelosi was the final speaker before the Monday afternoon vote. She made a stunningly partisan speech. It would seem to me that someone politically smart enough to be elected the first woman Speaker of the House might have been a bit more careful. She said, for example:
$700 billion. A staggering number. But only a part of the cost of the failed Bush economic policies to our country. Policies that were built on budget recklessness…
They claim to be free market advocates, when it's really an anything goes mentality. No regulation, no supervision, no discipline. And if you fail, you will have a golden parachute, and the taxpayer will bail you out.
Those days are over. The party is over in that respect. Democrats believe in a free market. We know that it can create jobs, it can create wealth, it can create many good things in our economy. But in this case, in its unbridled form, as encouraged, supported, by the Republicans—some in the Republican Party, not all—it has created not jobs, not capital, it has created chaos.
And she brought up that three-page outline again:
But it wasn't just the money that was alarming. It was the nature of the legislation. It gave the secretary of the Treasury czar-like powers, unlimited powers, latitude to do all kinds of things and specifically prohibited judicial review or review of any other federal administrative agency to review their actions.
Another aspect of it that was alarming is it gave the secretary the power to use any money that came back from these infusions of cash to be used at the discretion of the secretary. Not to reduce the deficit, not to go into the general funds so that we could afford other priorities. To be used at the discretion of the secretary. It was shocking. Working together in a bipartisan way, we were able to make major improvements on that proposal, even though its fundamental basis was almost arrogant and insulting.
I watched the debate and vote on C-SPAN. When they gaveled the vote closed and the bill failed 228 to 205, I jumped out of my chair, amazed. I told the vast office, "Wait, that wasn't supposed to happen!" I stuck my head out in the hall; I wanted to talk to somebody. The hall was empty so I walked quickly over to Michele's office and said it again, "That wasn't supposed to happen, was it?"
"Nope," she said and her phone started to ring. By the end of the day, the Dow lost 778 points in its single largest one-day point drop ever. It fell below 11,000, and (at least as I write this) has never risen above that number again.
When Republican Whip Eric Cantor said Pelosi's speech was one reason why Republicans decided to vote against the bill, it was criticized as petty. It wasn't just Republicans who voted no; many Democrats, including Black and Hispanic members as well as members from poorer and swing districts did, too.
Most of those who voted no, and even those who voted yes, had been besieged with calls from angry constituents, from you, absolutely opposed to the bill.
As this drama unfolded on Capitol Hill, the $800 billion Wachovia bank hemorrhaged deposits and the FDIC took it over rather than let it fail. Look at this frightening trend: Wachovia was 2.5 times the size of the recently failed Washington Mutual, and dwarfed the $32 billion IndyMac Bank failure and anything ever seen before. Nothing says systemic trouble like a bank contagion on Main Street, that mythical leafy lane where you live and work.
Hank issued a brief statement about the failed House vote:
I'm disappointed in today's vote, but leaders on both sides of the aisle worked hard. I've spoken to them and I know they share my great disappointment. …
We have experienced significant turmoil in our financial markets in the last few days, including the collapse of Washington Mutual and Wachovia here and the failure of two major financial institutions in Europe. Markets around the world are under stress, and that reduces the availability of credit that businesses across America depend on to meet payroll and to purchase inventories. …
Families, too, feel the credit crunch as it becomes more difficult to get car loans or a student loan. …
Therefore, I will continue to work with Congressional leaders to find a way forward to pass a comprehensive plan to stabilize our financial system and protect the American people by limiting the prospects of further deterioration in our economy. … We've got much work to do. This is much too important to simply let fail.
The two days of Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish holiday marking the beginning of a new year, started at sundown and there wouldn't be another chance to vote until it ended at sundown, on Wednesday, October 1. So, we needed a new plan.
Those of us at Treasury not in the meetings, relying on the press as much as any source for information, tried to survive the tension with jokes, like saying that we wanted "King Henry" to name us knights of the realm instead of mere political appointees. We didn't say this within earshot of the King, however, who had a phone glued to his ear—a phone that he has since donated to the Smithsonian Institution—talking to the banks, the Fed, the President, the myriad factions in Congress.
I cringed as Obama and McCain talked about "Wall Street greed," as if this was new news. It had been arrogance and stupidity as much as greed. Main Street was not entirely innocent, either, but who can win an election by making voters villains?
We would learn that September was one of the hardest months for our economy, ever, and the third quarter, which ended on the 30th, was our first negative GDP quarter since 2001. It was the first time since 1991 that you actually saved more than you spent. You didn't spend because you were one of the hundreds of thousands who lost your job this month, or feared you would lose your job soon.
On September 30, the SEC and FASB issued new mark-to market guidance. They offered more flexibility and emphasized that companies should use judgment, not just formulas, to set asset values. Or, that numbers mean something unless you judge they mean something else.
The month ended with more scary headlines:
Financial Times, "Stocks dive on bail-out rejection"
The New York Times, "Defiant House Rejects Huge Bailout; Stocks Plunge; Next Step is Uncertain"
The Wall Street Journal, "Bailout Plan Rejected; Markets Plunge, Forcing New Scramble to Solve Crisis"
The Washington Post, "House Rejects Financial Rescue, Sending Stocks Plummeting," "Opposition crosses party lines, Dow falls a record 778 points"
As Washington Mutual and Wachovia failed, the crisis spread to European banks. In response, Ireland guaranteed all of its national bank deposits. Ireland's depositors now had guarantees no other government offered, and eventually the U.S. and other EU governments would have to offer more guarantees or watch deposits flee toward safety, or the illusion of safety.
CHAPTER 9: … AND TURNS AGAIN
OCTOBER 1–3, 2008
What now? We said we needed this legislation to save the system and it had failed. Would the system fail now, too? That's why the Dow dropped, that's why investors continued to buy safe Treasury bills and bonds. Cred-Mart went, as The Wall Street Journal said, "from Bad to Worse to Ugly." TED had dropped down to 2%, hoping that the legislation would pass, now he spiked back up to 3% and kept going until mid-October when he'd be over 4.5%. My hips, thanks to the chocolate circuit, spread right along with him.
We had wanted to pass the plan we needed to stabilize our system in the House first. That strategy didn't work: It was time to talk to the Senate.
About now, we started to hear that we were having the greatest financial crisis since the Great Depression, which depressed us even more. Even though we were nowhere near the 25% unemployment rate or over 4,000 bank failures of way back then, the analogy stuck. Others much more expert than I can give you all the causes of the Depression; from what I know, it was a mix of financial wizardry, government policy and tight monetary policy.
In the first sentence of Anna Karenina, Tolstoy wrote that "happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Economic cycles are sort of like this; strong economies are all alike, weak economies are weak in their own way.
Anyway, the TARP price tag was about $2,300 for everyone in your house, except your pets. You were steaming mad about that, but you were not happy when the stock market sank and you lost a lot of money in your retirement and investment accounts. And so you began to think again about how you might actually be cutting off your nose to spite your face, and to spite Wall Street.
State governments were also feeling the freeze. You've heard of municipal bonds, right? That is the debt states issue to fund things like schools, police and fire departments. The muni bond market was also frozen and Governor Schwarzenegger sent a letter to Hank saying that California might need $7 billion from the Treasury unless the muni bond market started working again. They didn't get it.
Once Rosh Hashanah ended at Wednesday sunset, the Senate brought up a new version of the rescue bill that failed in the House. It added $100 billion in tax provisions, new mandates for mental health insurance coverage and increased FDIC insurance deposit limits from $100,000 to $250,000. It also split the $700 billion TARP money into portions, in financial wonkese they call them "tranches:" $250 billion available immediately, $100 billion at the President's discretion and the last $350 billion subject to a congressional veto. They didn't want "King Henry" to have access to the money all at once.
The Senate passed the bill—the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act—74–25. Obama and McCain came back to Washington and voted for it; the only senator not voting was Ted Kennedy, who was ill with a brain tumor.
So the bill went back to the House for further deliberation. In this case, that was code for cajoling and in some cases begging for votes. Once we'd said this was the ticket to stability, it had to be passed. And the House finally did pass it, on Friday, October 3. The vote was a not-so-close 263–171; 33 Democrats and 25 Republicans switched their vote from no to yes.
Hank issued a statement when the bill passed and didn't quite use the Tolstoy analogy, but almost:
There is no one-size-fits-all solution to alleviating the stress in our financial system. Each situation will be different … we must … adapt to changing circumstances and conditions, and attract private capital … protect and recapitalize our financial system.
The name of the bill was the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (we'll call it "EESA" from here on out). It wasn't the Magical Economic Recovery Act or the Economy-Will-Be-Fixed Act; it was the Stabilization Act. President Bush signed it within hours and we hoped, again, that the dark night of our economic soul would brighten. It didn't. In fact, instead of sending us flowers and candy, the stock market fell another 150 points. Some said the bill might not be enough and it could already be too late.
Actually, our economic soul had grown much darker in the two weeks since Lehman went BK and AIG was rescued.
The Dow fell by over 9% from September 19 to October 3. Stock market volatility rose to 45% on October 3, and kept rising until it hit 70% on October 10. Every day was a rollercoaster ride.
You had pretty much stopped buying those big SUVs when gas prices went crazy, now even though gas was back down to about $3.60 a gallon, you worried about keeping your job and pretty much stopped buying cars altogether. The U.S. auto industry, not very strong going into the crisis, got even weaker.
But let's focus on Cred-Mart. Ah, it remained dismal there indeed. Long-term confidence had evaporated; the amount of outstanding commercial paper fell by a total of $60 billion and what was issued was for 1-4 days only. LIBOR rates went over 5%, which meant if banks wanted to separate in mid-September, they wanted D-I-V-O-R-C-E now.
October 4–12, 2008
I remember September by the companies that made news. There was the Fannie and Freddie weekend, the Lehman weekend, the Lehman week, the Morgan Stanley weekend, etc.
This first weekend in October no U.S. bank went under, thought about going under, or needed government help to not go under. Instead, this was the European bank weekend. French President Sarkozy, head of the EU at the time, held a summit in Paris on Saturday, October 4. EU Leaders pledged cooperation to fight the financial crisis but didn't endorse a specific plan.
Within hours, these same EU leaders were racing to shore up banks caught in the credit freeze contagion and the aftermath of frozen Lehman assets. Central banks had been injecting money into the EU liquidity bathtub, but that wasn't enough. The problems were no longer just their holdings of crummy mortgage assets. The high LIBOR (remember it's the London interbank offering rate) showed that European banks were also unwilling to lend to one another. EU bank customers saw what was going on in the U.S. and lost confidence in their banks, too. Germany rescued a huge property lender, and joined Ireland and Greece in guaranteeing all bank deposits. Belgium and France's BNP Paribas bank rescued the huge Dutch–Belgian bank Fortis.
And since, by definition, the world economy is interconnected, banks and markets on every continent were hit. Can you say "global meltdown?" Yes, you can.
The Fed revved up its power tools. On Monday the 6th, it increased the size of the Term Asset Facility (TAF) to $150 billion. Remember the TAF was set up in December 2007 to loan funds against collateral to help banks maintain liquidity. The Fed also began to pay interest on the balances banks held in reserve to help keep the fed funds rate close to the target, which they also lowered on October 8 by 0.50%, to 1.5%.
While Europe trembled, we started drafting remarks Hank would make on October 8 to explain how Treasury would implement the EESA. I sent a first draft out on Sunday night the 5th.
My brother Bret and his wife Ann had arrived on Saturday for their first ever trip to Washington. They are a happy, earnest couple and their wonder at the monuments, the bridges, and driving down Constitution Avenue like it's any regular street, but the White House is on the left and the Washington Monument on the right, reminded me that this is a beautiful city, even if it is haughty and remote from the real world.
Bret and Ann didn't expect to see much of me because of course I must be so busy. I was busy, and I was also learning after years of missing weddings, birthdays and graduations that when you get a chance to spend time with family (you like), you should take it. I worked when I needed to, and spent as much time with them as I could.
Stock markets opened on Monday after the frantic weekend. The one-day losses were huge: London down about 8%; Paris down 9%; Russia down 19%; India, Brazil and Hong Kong down over 5%; Japan, Indonesia down 10% and the United States down about 4%.
Banks and governments around the world realized that the troubles were far, far from over and the crisis was spreading, not abating.
It was a great depressing moment when the Dow closed below 10,000, and depressing moments continued. The Dow lost about 1,500 points or almost 15% in this one week and closed just above 8,500 on Friday.
On Monday, Hank named our rocket scientist Neel as the new interim Assistant Secretary of the Office of Financial Stability, to oversee the TARP. If you establish an Office of Financial Stability, stability will come, right?
On Tuesday, with Cred-Mart and the commercial paper markets still frozen, the Fed created the "Commercial Paper Funding Facility" (Eureka! CPFF). They would buy that commercial paper that nobody else would, providing another liquidity backstop to get credit flowing.
The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee held the first of many angry hearings. This time, they were furious at AIG for taking a trip to an exclusive resort and spa shortly after receiving the $85 billion Fed loan. Beating up on corporate executives has always been good theater; beating up on corporate executives receiving taxpayer largesse can win you a Tony. I don't know that AIG realized that for every dollar of taxpayer money they, or any other company, received they'd also get five dollars worth of insults. Come to think of it, maybe public humiliation is the best way to prevent (im)moral hazard.
Hank's Wednesday EESA statement was turning into a full-blown speech. There was so much at stake, so much to say and so many people who wanted to edit it. I spent a lot of time waiting and wandering the halls. On the door of the crowded, ground floor offices of the Treasury pressroom, someone posted this quote from The Great Gatsby. I think this was a justified swipe at the financial wizards:
They were careless people, Tom and Daisy … they smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money … and let other people clean up the mess they had made.
Then I headed outside toward Lafayette Park. The group Code Pink, which spent most of its time pinking against the Iraq War, was protesting in front of Treasury. Someone dressed up in a suit and tie wore a papier-mâché caricature-head of Hank and held a big sign:
Treasury under new management—
Goldman Sachs.
The election was less than a month away. Obama and McCain debated the night of October 7. I couldn't sit still so instead got in my car and drove around, listening to it on the radio. In the background was a little voice wondering how I would earn my living after January. Who would hire a speechwriter in this economy?
We finally got to Wednesday; the EESA speech was at 3 p.m. At 2:30 p.m. we were on the 22nd draft and still editing. As a statement, it should have been about 1,000 words, now it was 2,600 words and so dense and bloated it read like sludge.
"Institution" or "institutions" occurred 25 times (as I waited for edits, I counted), and we had wonkese phrases like "acting to protect" deposits versus "protecting" deposits. Was there a difference? This was one of those moments when we should have been very clear and patiently explained all the terms and machinations, but we did not.
Hank had feared the whole speech was too negative, and he was right. Markets didn't like sentences like these, because they thought he was going to nationalize banks:
We will use all of the tools we've been given to maximum effectiveness, including strengthening the capitalization of financial institutions of every size.
And then there was the truth that some banks would still fail:
One thing we must recognize—even with the new Treasury authorities, some financial institutions will fail. The EESA doesn't exist to save every financial institution for its own sake.
Markets went down and stayed down as Hank spoke, quite a different reaction from his last public statement on September 18 when "markets roared in approval."
The Fed kept using its power tools, announcing coordinated rate cuts with central banks in Canada, Europe, England and Switzerland. The New York Fed said it would lend AIG another $38 billion, on top of the $85 billion already spent, to keep it afloat. This was all in addition to the $700 billion TARP money.
It was so much money—billions, trillions—we might as well have said gazillions for all the perspective we had on how many zeros were attached.
I was supposed leave this Friday for my Stanford Business School 20-year reunion, but I didn't make that trip, either. It was ironic that I was at Treasury, the center of this financial crisis. When I arrived at Stanford in the fall of 1986, I was the public school student with a public sector background who didn't know anything about Wall Street or finance. I had packed everything I owned into my Toyota Celica, drove to Palo Alto and met my classmates. They had been to Europe; I didn't even have a passport. They graduated from the Ivy League; I had a BA from Cal State Bakersfield. I met half a dozen people who had worked for Morgan Stanley.
Finally, I asked one guy, "Who is this Mr. Stanley?" He stared at me as if I had two heads.
I had gotten in to Stanford late, off the waiting list. I had been all set to go to UC Berkeley, which was practically going to pay me to get my MBA. Stanford offered a small scholarship and a lot of debt. But Stanford Business School was the E-ticket, the grail, the gold seal on the resume.
So, instead of going to Stanford, I stayed in Washington with Bret and Ann. When they left on Saturday, I had my first chance to think. This can be dangerous. I wondered if Treasury was making things worse, if Uncle Sam's interference was keeping markets from rebounding to normal. It had been only a week since the EESA passed but almost a month since we'd gone into financial shock. Every day Cred-Mart had gotten more stressed, markets around the world were imploding, TED was spreading wider and LIBOR was shooting through the roof.
I concluded then and still think now that Hank and the smart gang did what they could, and what they did was right. Sure, something might have been done sooner, better or differently, that's always true.
But I wondered if the plan to purchase assets wasn't the right fix anymore. Over this weekend, the smart gang at Treasury wondered about that too. They looked at the worsening markets, at the wide spreads, at the systemic stress. They looked at one another and had a change of TARP. They decided to inject capital directly into the banks, to administer a direct rather than indirect inoculation; but with as little interference as possible, if that was possible.
October 13–31, 2008
And so on Monday the 13th, Hank met with the CEOs of the nation's nine largest banks and made them the gift, on good terms, of $125 billion of TARP funds under a new "Capital Purchase Program" (CPP). Combined, these nine banks held about half of the $11 trillion U.S. banking system assets.
Under the CPP, Treasury would purchase non-voting, senior preferred shares of qualifying banks and thrifts. This would immediately increase their capital reserves, which meant they should stabilize, first, and start lending, second, and the Cred-Mart aisles would calm down. Since we've visited stock-land we know that buying "non-voting, senior preferred" shares meant we were trying to find that delicate balance of investing without controlling, but having a say in some things, like executive compensation.
The borrowing price for the capital would go up if the banks hadn't paid it back within five years; wasn't that a clear signal that this wasn't meant to last forever? Treasury, that is you and me, the taxpayers, would get warrants to purchase stock, which was a possible upside for our federal pocketbook. The program was aimed at healthy banks, not meant to throw good taxpayer money into banks that were one step away from failing. It wasn't nationalization but it wasn't quite capitalism, either (Eureka! Capital Purchase Program).
The Dow went wild with the news, and soared over 900 points on Monday, to close over 9,000 again.
Hank, Ben and FDIC Chairman Sheila Bair officially announced the program on Tuesday the 14th. Here's how Hank explained his view:
Today's actions are not what we ever wanted to do—but today's actions are what we must do to restore confidence to our financial system.
Today I am announcing that the Treasury will purchase equity stakes in a wide array of banks and thrifts. Government owning a stake in any private U.S. company is objectionable to most Americans—me included. Yet the alternative of leaving businesses and consumers without access to financing is totally unacceptable. When financing isn't available, consumers and businesses shrink their spending, which leads to businesses cutting jobs and even closing up shop.
To avoid that outcome, we must restore confidence in our financial system. The first step in that effort is a plan to make capital available on attractive terms to a broad array of banks and thrifts, so they can provide credit to our economy. From the $700 billion financial rescue package, Treasury will make $250 billion in capital available to U.S. financial institutions in the form of preferred stock…
Our goal is to see a wide array of healthy institutions sell preferred shares to the Treasury, and raise additional private capital, so that they can make more loans to businesses and consumers across the nation…
Chairman Bair also announced an FDIC "Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program" through June 30, 2009. This program would guarantee the senior debt of all FDIC-insured institutions and their holding companies, as well as deposits in non-interest-bearing deposit transaction accounts. This would be one of the most valuable programs for stability, as banks could issue debt, the paper, bonds and notes they used all the time to fund operations, with a government guarantee (Eureka! Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program).
The government now had reached out and touched almost everything the wizards held, did or thought about doing. Hank went on the next morning's news shows to explain what seemed to be a 180-degree reversal of his initial plan:
We have, from the very beginning, been focusing on capital to the banks, getting capital to the banks whether through liquid assets or injecting capital. I think that as the facts have changed it's pretty clear that the taxpayers' money will go further if we inject capital into the banking system … the facts have changed. …
And the facts had changed, big time. Despite the [profoundly mistaken] idea that by passing a law, in this case the EESA, the government could immediately fix everything—the markets and the economy are too complicated. The cancer continued to metastasize throughout the banks and Cred-Mart. Credit spreads remained sky high; borrowing and lending didn't have a miraculous rebirth. Buying assets wouldn't solve the problem fast enough, if at all. What you and the politicians saw was Hank changing his mind, after you thought he'd rejected the idea of injecting capital.
He explained to The Wall Street Journal that the non-voting preferred shares meant Uncle Sam would be a passive, silent investor. The interviewer asked if this "open[ed] the door to government intrusion?" Hank said:
We're not looking to come in and take meaningful ownership percentages. Remember this is America and the approach here is we believe in the private sector.
The seeming contradiction between, "we believe in the private sector," and telling big banks, "here's the money, take it," was a difficult nuance to explain. It's back to our (hopefully, by now familiar) idea that the banks are our power grid for money, and if they went down, we'd all be in the dark. And as Hank said on October 14, "Government owning a stake in any private U.S. company is objectionable to most Americans—me included."
President Bush also spoke on October 15 and reassured you, me and the markets that the (CPP) program "is designed to preserve free enterprise, not replace free enterprise … banks will be privately controlled, government will be a passive investor."
Nice try, but political fault lines cracked wide open. We didn't do a good job explaining what had changed.
And Hank knew it. He told the press he wasn't proud of the mistakes, and regretted the failures of market discipline and regulation that led to the crisis. Hank could be demanding and overbearing, but he could also be, and was, humbled by the magnitude of the problems and the false starts of our response.
Hank was vilified and accused of coercing those first nine banks to take TARP money. The pundits and politicians asked what and who caused this. Was the culprit capitalism or deregulation? Was it former Fed Chair Greenspan's fault? Of course it was Bush's fault, everything was.
Some economists had looked at the high liquidity seas and predicted the storm. New York University economist Dr. Nouriel Roubini predicted in September 2006 that the U.S. was going to face a housing crisis and a deep recession, and earned the nickname Dr. Doom. Yes, some warned and few believed.
The Capital Purchase Program that became the main use of the TARP money walked our economy slowly back from the edge. It didn't fix the economy; that wasn't its purpose. The purpose was to restore stability, and it did. By the end of October, it seemed every company wanted to become a bank so they could get TARP money.
On the 17th, Warren Buffett, published an op-ed in The New York Times, with the headline, "Buy American. I am."
The same day, The Washington Post wrote an amazingly free-market editorial, "Is Capitalism dead?" which said, "… the market that failed was not exactly free." They used the example of Fannie and Freddie and wrote, "government sponsored upside-only capitalism is the kind that's in crisis today and we say: Good riddance."
At the same time, Britain's Prime Minister Brown and French President Sarkozy suggested that this was a chance to create new rules for the global economy and "revamp" capitalism. I liked the Post's view more, that what we had seen was not a failure of capitalism or free markets because markets had not been exactly free.
By October 20, gas was back below $3.00 a gallon and talks were already underway with the auto companies who had come looking for money, too.
Jitters continued, though, and on October 29 the Fed again reduced the fed funds rate by 50 basis points; it was now at 1.00%. The Fed set up or expanded swap lines to keep liquidity flowing, with New Zealand, Brazil, Mexico, Korea and Singapore.
I played my usual, silent role during this time of trial. I was glued simultaneously to my Blackberry, the Internet and the television. Hank became the focus of the nation's anger and frustration, and that was both fair and unfair. I saw and heard so much misinformation and ranted when no one could hear my (presumably) accurate facts. Early one morning I was walking Eva and saw a copy of the latest National Review on an office building doorstep. The cover was a photo of Hank and the headline, "The Perils of Paulson, Bailouts to Nowhere." I almost stole it, so no one could read it, and then realized I was taking things a little too personally.
Conservatives sat behind microphones asked, so what if a few banks failed? We began to tear at one another in rage, ignorance and jealous class warfare. The presidential and vice presidential candidates echoed and stoked it all, which shouldn't have been surprising. Politics is full of windmills mistaken for giants and it wasn't clear who was Don Quixote and who was Sancho Panza.
I found quiet and strength at St. Paul's, even though the sermons were about surviving the same financial chaos I wrote about at work. The pulpit and the press amplified doomsday metaphors and I sat on edge, trying to understand all that was happening around me.
I was like you and wanted to know: How did we get here? As a true believer in capitalism, I liked to tell anyone who would listen that economic cycles, even bubbles, were inevitable. I was three months away from unemployment with a mortgage I could neither afford nor get out of; I didn't like economic cycle theory all too much now.
The economists would eventually tell us that we lost over 300,000 jobs this October. You already knew that, and you weren't going to vote for more of the same. The Republican Party was bound to lose on Election Day.
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