AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): deaths from, 1, 2, 3
Aachen: anti-monarchists seize, 1
Abacha, General: heads military regime in Nigeria, 1
Abadan (Iran): a cinema fire in, 1
Abd el-Krim: leads revolt against Spain, 1; leads revolt against France, 2
Abdul Ghaffar Khan: leads revolt, 1
Abdul Hamid, Sultan of Turkey: and Kuwait, 1; and Macedonia, 2, 3; and the Young Turks, 4; deposed, 5
Abdul-laqhi-es-Soghayer: his rebellion crushed, 1
Abidjan (Ivory Coast): an international meeting in, 1
Abkhazia: treason trials in, 1; revolt in, 2
Aborigines (of Australia): defended, 1; denied the vote, 2
Abrams, General: advises action in Cambodia, 1
Abruzzi Mountains: Mussolini rescued from, 1
Abyssinia: and Italian imperial expansion, 1; annexed by Italy, 2; its fate, recalled by Truman, 3; for subsequent index entries see Ethiopia
Academy Award (Oscar): and the victims of McCarthyism, 1
Acheampong, General: executed, in Ghana, 1
Achille Lauro (cruise liner): an act of terror on, 1
Acholi tribes: in Uganda, 1
acid rain: and man-made pollutants, 1, 2
Acts of Union (South Africa): 1
Adams, Eddie: his dramatic photograph, 1
Adams, Gerry: invited to Downing Street, 1; condemns Omagh bomb, 2
Addis Ababa: Italian troops enter, 1
Aden: Italy challenges Britain at, 1
Adenauer, Konrad: elected Chancellor, 1
Admiralty Islands: overrun (1944), 1
Adrianople (Edirne): battles for, 1, 2; returned to Turkey, 3; occupied by Greece, 4; to return to Turkey, 5
Adriatic Sea: Serbs flee to (1915), 1; a nuclear-free zone proposed for (1959), 2; missiles launched against Serbia from (1999), 3
advertising: and cigarettes, 1, 2; and substitute milk for babies, 3; and a call for peace negotiations, 4
Aegean Sea: and the range of a Polaris missile, 1
aerial bombardment: an experiment in (1908), 1; first wartime use of (1911), 2; in the First World War, 3, 4, 5, 6; in Somaliland, 7; in Mesopotamia, 8; in Abyssinia, 9; of Guernica, 10, 11; of Shanghai, 12; of Barcelona, 13; of Prague (threatened by Hitler), 14; of Chungking, 15; of Warsaw, 16, 17; of Rotterdam, 18; of French civilians fleeing, 19; of London, 20, 21, 22, 23; of Munich, 24; of Coventry, 25; of Berlin, 26; of Leningrad, 27; of Pearl Harbor, Hong Kong and Singapore, 28; of Darwin, 29; of Mandalay, 30; of Lübeck, 31; of Bath, Norwich and York, 32; of Cologne, 33; of Essen, Nuremberg and Munich, 34; of Wuppertal, 35; of Düsseldorf, 36; of Hamburg, 37; of Monte Cassino, 38, 39; of Augsburg, 40; of Paris and Rouen (as a prelude to the D-Day Landings), 41; of Lyon, 42; of London, by flying bomb, 43; of Buchenwald (in error), 44; of Dresden, 45; of Pforzheim, 46; of Cologne, 47; of The Hague (rocket launch sites), 48; of Tokyo, 49; of Berlin (on Hitler's 50th birthday), 51; of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 52; of Japanese military installations, 53; Second World War death toll from, 54; of Tel Aviv (1948), 55; of Vietnam, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66; and the Suez War, 67; and the Six-Day War, 68; and Cambodia, 69, 70, 71; and Laos, 72, 73; and Afghanistan, 74; and the Falklands War, 75, 76; and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 77; of Hama, in Syria, 78; of Baalbek, in Lebanon, 79; of PLO headquarters in Tunis, 80; of terrorist training camps in Libya, 81; of Halabja, Iraq, with chemical weapons, 82; of the Mutla Ridge, Kuwait, 83; of Baghdad, 84; of the Kurds, 85; of Grozny, 86, 87; of Bosnia Serb positions, 88, 89; of Hizbullah positions in Beirut, 90; threatened, against Serbia, 91; carried out, against Serbia, 92, 93; see also index entry air power
Aeroflot: flight of, to the United States, suspended, 1
Afghanistan: a military coup in, 1; Soviet invasion of, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and 'a bleeding wound', 8, 9; Soviet Union to withdraw from, 10; last Soviet troops leave, 11; civil war in, 12; an anti-personnel mine victim in, 13; Taleban control of, 14
Africa: wars being fought in, in 1900; European Powers active in, 1, 2; colonialism withers in, 3, 4; and Spain, 5, 6; and Italy, 7, 8; national movements in, 9, 10; rebellions in, 11, 12, 13; human rights violations in, 14, 15, 16, 17; famine in, 18, 19, 20; international help for, 21, 22; poverty in, 23, 24; refugees in, 25, 26; civil wars in, 27, 28; Kofi Annan's hopes for, 29
African National Congress: challenges apartheid, 1, 2, 3; a former head of, brought to trial, 4; a supporter of imprisoned, 5; no longer banned, 6; pledges to end struggle, 7; and inter-communal violence, 8, 9, 10; and the 1994 elections, 11; an apology to, 12; and Nyasaland, 13; and Southern Rhodesia, 14; and Northern Rhodesia, 15; uses bases in Mozambique, 16
Afrikaans language: proposed compulsory teaching in, 1
Afrikaaner rule (in South Africa): ends, 1
Agadir: German designs on, 1; earthquake in, 2
Air France: and a hijacking that ended in Entebbe, 1
Air Lanka: an act of terror against, 1
air power: in prospect (1908), 1; and secret German preparations (from 1926), 2; and the suppression of an uprising in Lisbon (1927), 3; and German rearmament (after 1933), 4; and the civil war in China, 5; and the Spanish Civil War, 6, 7; and American aid to France, 8; and the Battle of Britain, 9; and the American bombing of Germany, 10; and the defeat of Germany, 11; and the Warsaw Uprising, 12, 13; and Hitler's flying and rocket bombs, 14, 15; and the first German jet aircraft, 16; and the defeat of Japan, 17, 18; and the Berlin Blockade, 19; and the Korean War, 20; and the war in Vietnam, 21, 22; and radar defences, 23; and pilotless bombers, 24; and the Czechoslovak revolution (of 1968), 25; and the Egyptian-Israeli War of Attrition (1970–1), 26; and the 'Backfire' bomber, 27; and the 'Foxbat' fighter, 28; and the Iranian hostage crisis, 29; and Israel's invasion of Lebanon, 30; and humanitarian aid, 31; and the Gulf War, 32; see also index entry aerial bombardment
Air Rhodesia: a passenger aircraft of, shot down, 1
Akaba: Israel-Jordan peace treaty signed in, 1
Akayesu, Jean-Paul: found guilty of war crimes, 1
Akhmatova, Anna: her poems banned, 1
Alabama: civil rights unrest in, 1; and a Supreme Court decision, 2; Martin Luther King campaigns in, 3, 4
Alamein: see index entry El Alamein
Alamogordo (New Mexico): and atomic bomb test at, 1
Alaska: and a radar defence chain, 1, 2; and a nuclear-powered submarine, 3; a Senator from, opposes war in Vietnam, 4; a spy plane returns to its base in, 5; an oil spill off, 6
Alba Julia, Bishop of: arrested, 1
Albania: independent, introduction, 2; violence in, 3; struggle for independence in, 4, 5; and the First Balkan War, 6; and the Second Balkan War, 7; evacuated by Serbia, 8; conquered by Austria (1916), 9, 10; signs treaty with Italy (1926), 11; and the Spanish Civil War, 12; conquered by Italy (1939), 13; used by Italy as a base against Greece (1940), 14; post-1945 Communist rule in, 15; joins Warsaw Pact, 16; a Kosovar Albanian demand for union with, 17; anti-Communist demonstrations in, 18, 19; Kosovar Albanians flee to, 20
Albanians: in Turkey, 1; in Calcutta (Mother Teresa), 2; in Kosovo, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Albright, Madeleine: in Bosnia, 1
Alcock and Brown: make the first transatlantic flight, 1
Aldershot: and wireless telegraphy, 1
Aldrin, Edwin: on the surface of the moon, photo 1 Alekseeva, Ludmilla: allowed to emigrate, 2
Aleppo (Syria): unrest in, 1
Alexander, King (of Serbia): murdered, 1
Alexander, King (of Yugoslavia): suspends constitution, 1; assassinated, 2
Alexeyev, General: warns of anti-war feeling, 1
Alfonso XIII, King (of Spain): suspends freedoms, 1; stripped of power, 2; an assassination attempt against, 3; opens National Assembly, 4
Algeria: troops from, in Vietnam, 1; France's conflict in, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; French people vote for independence of, 7; final path to independence in, 8; and the Soviet Union, 9; violence in, 10, 11, 12, 13
Algiers: and Algerian independence, 1, and a hijacking, 2
Ali, Mohammad and Shaukat: urge ban on Muslim service in Indian army, 1
Alice's Wonderland: the first cartoon film, 1
All-American cable: opened, 1
All-India Moslem League: and the aspirations of India's Muslims, 1
All-Union Treaty (1991): intended to preserve Soviet Union, 1
Allahabad: and an air mail experiment, 1
Allahabad High Court: challenges Indira Gandhi, 1
Allen, Jay: Franco confides in, 1
Allende, Salvador: in power, and overthrown, 1
Alliance of Free Democrats: established (1988) in Hungary, 1
Alma Ata: riots in, 1
Alsace-Lorraine: discontent in, 1, 2, 3; Germany does not wish to lose, 4
Amalrik, Andrei: allowed to emigrate, 1
Ambon (Indonesia): inter-religious riots in, 1
American Civil War: a veteran of, assassinated, 1
American Express: launches credit card, 1
American Legion: its protest march, 1
American Red Cross: feeds the hungry, 1
American Relief Administration: combats famine in Russia, 1
Amin, Idi: his brutal regime, 1, 2, 3, 4; overthrown, 5, 6;
Amnesty International: and Ethiopia, 1; and Uganda, 2; and Yugoslavia, 3; names eighty countries with 'prisoners of conscience', 4; and Somalia, 5; and South Korea, 6; and Burundi, 7
Amritsar: massacre in, a turning point (1919), 1; an assault on the Golden Temple in (1984), 2
Amsterdam: a betrayal in (1944), 1
Amundsen, Roald: reaches South Pole, 1; not allowed to speak Norwegian, 2
Anaheim (California); Disneyland opens in, 1
Anandahpura (Sri Lanka): a massacre in, 1
anarchists: fight Russian anti-Bolsheviks (1919), 1; in Madrid (1939), 2
Anatolia: Armenians in, 1; Russian pressure on, 2; massacre of Armenians in, 3; Greeks driven from, 4
Ancient Egypt: and opinion polls, 1
Anderson, Gunnar: and the Japanese bombing of Shanghai, 1
Andropov, Yury: heads KGB, 1; rules Soviet Union, 2, 3; Gorbachev a possible successor to, 4; dies, and succeeded by Chernenko, 5
Angell, Norman: his warning about war, 1
Anglican Cathedral (Juba, Sudan): Christians murdered in, 1
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: 1
Angola: Portuguese rule in, 1; uprising in, 2; independent, 3; refugees from, 4; and Zaire, 5; and South Africa, 6; civil war in, 7; anti-personnel mine victims in, 8
Angora (Turkey): Mustafa Kemal raises standard of revolt at, 1; Provisional Government established at, 2; National Assembly at, 3; for subsequent index entries see Ankara
Ankara (formerly Angora): attacks on Spanish property in, 1; a PLO office in, 2
Anna Karenina (film): launched, 1
Annan, Kofi: leads United Nations, 1; opposes India's nuclear tests, 2
Anschluss (union with Germany): demands for, in Austria, 1; carried out by Hitler, 2
Antarctica: and an ozone layer 'hole', 1, 2
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM): nuclear defence systems, 1; and the renewal of nuclear disarmament, 2
Anti-Bolshevik League: formed (1924), 1
Anti-Fascist Committee (of the Soviet Union): dissolved, 1; fate of members of, 2
Anti-Nazi Council: Churchill speaks at, 1
anti-personnel landmines: a curse, 1, 2; in Kosovo, 3; between Ethiopia and Eritrea, 4
Antonov-Ovseenko, Vladimir: vanishes without trace, 1
Antwerp: Olympic Games in (1920), 1; Germans occupy (1940), 2; a punishment camp in, 3; an American air raid on, 4; a German objective (1944), 5; rocket bomb attacks on, 6, 7
Anzac Cove: landing at (1915), 1
Anzio: landing at (1943), 1; break-out from, 2
apartheid (in South Africa): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; to come to an end, 14, 15, 16; dismantled, 17, 18; and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 19
Apple computers: founded, 1
Apollo space capsule: astronauts killed in, while still on the ground, 1; unmanned, launched on a 2,000-ton rocket, 3
Arab-Israel Conflict: begins (1948), 1; renewed (1956), 2, 3, 4; and Soviet support for Egypt, 5; and the Six-Day War (1967), 6; and the Polish Communist regime, 7; and the War of Attrition (1970–1), 8; and the October War (1973), 9; and PLO attacks from Lebanon, 10; and oil, 11; refugees from, in Lebanon, 12; and Sadat's visit to Jerusalem, 13; and the Camp David Accords, 14; and the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty; 15, 16; and Iraq's nuclear reactor, 17; and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 18; and the Israel-Jordan peace treaty, 19, 20; and the Israel-Palestinian agreements (Oslo I and Oslo II), 21; and renewed violence, 22, 23; and the proposals put forward by Ehud Barak, 24
Arab League: sends peacekeeping force to Lebanon, 1
Arab Legion: advances, 1
Arab Liberation Army: and Palestine, 1; and Israel, 2
Arab Peace Force: in Lebanon, 1
Arabia: Turks driven out of, 1; Jews from, in Ethiopia, 2
Arabian Sea: and the Iranian hostage crisis, 1
Arabs: in Turkey, 1; in Libya, 2, 3; in Mesopotamia, 4, 5; in Arabia, 6; in Palestine, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; in Israel, 14; on the West Bank of the Jordan, 15
Arafat, Yasser: heads PLO, 1; takes up residence in Lebanon, 2; addresses United Nations General Assembly, 3; and the Lebanese civil war, 4; and the Fatah ('victory') movement, 5; leaves Beirut, 6; and the peace process, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; and the Palestinian Authority, 13, 14, 15; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 16; rejects an Israeli proposal, 17
Aral Sea: drying up (1997), 1
Arbitration Treaties (1925): Germany signs, 1
Arco (Idaho): and nuclear power, 1
Arco Valley, Count von: an assassin, 1
Arctic Circle: slave labour camps north of, 1; radar defence across, 2
Arctic Ocean: Soviet H-bomb tests in, 1; Soviet rule stretches from, to the Caspian, 2
Ardeatine Caves (Rome): a reprisal in, 1
Ardennes Forest: German offensive in (1944), 1; Hitler leaves headquarters at, 2; a veteran of, takes command in Korea, 3
Argentina: emigration to, 1; under Peron, 2; under General Videla, 3; and Afghanistan, 4; and the Falklands War, 5
Argov, Shlomo: gravely injured, 1
Arizona (battleship): losses on, 1
Ariztia, Fernando: protests, in Chile, 1
Arkansas: desegregation in, 1, 2; within missile range of Cuba, 3; allegations of speculation in, 4
Arlington Cemetery (Virginia): Paderewski returned to Poland from, 1
Armagh (North Ireland): a death in, 1
Armed Islamic Front (in Algeria): killings by, 1
Armenia: independent, 1; occupied by Turkey, 2; and war debts to the United States, 3; and the demands of Nagorno-Karabakh, 4; a devastating earthquake in, 5; Azerbaijan declares war on, 6; declares independence, 7
Armenians: in Turkish Empire, 1, 2, 3; massacre of (1915), 4; further massacre of (1922), 5; and the Armenian Patriarchate, 6; in Nagorno-Karabakh, 7, 8, 9; 'a courageous Christian people', 10
Armia Krajowa (National Army): and Polish resistance, 1; and the Warsaw Uprising, 2; officers of, arrested (1949), 3
Armia Ludowa (People's Army): and Polish resistance, 1; and the Warsaw Uprising, 2
arms trade: in the Middle East and world wide, 1; and Afghanistan, 2; and Iraq, 3; and the United States, 4
Arnhem: an Allied objective, 1
Arnauts: in Macedonia, 1
'Art Deco': formulated, 1
'Aryan': a racist concept, taken up by Hitler, 1, 2, 3, 4; and the Nuremberg Laws, 5; and the fate of the Jews, 6, 7
Asad, Hafez al-: imposes his authority in Syria, 1; rejects an Israeli proposal, 2
Asch (Sudetenland): Czechs to withdraw from, 1
Asian 'flu: a worldwide pandemic (1957–8), 1
Asmara (Ethiopia): cut off, 1
Asquith, Raymond: killed in action, 1
Associated Press (A.P.): and Vietnam, 1; reports an arrest in Shanghai, 2
Assyrian Christians: murdered (in Iraq), 1
Asturias (Spain): miners fight authorities in, 1
Aswan (Egypt): a gun battle in, 1
Athenia (passenger liner): torpedoed, 1
Athens: and the Olympics, 1; German troops enter, 2; hostages shot in, 3; Churchill flies to, 4; government in, seeks control of Cyprus, 5; military regime in, overthrown, 6; an aircraft on its way from, hijacked, 7
Atlanta (Georgia): desegregation in, 1; violence in, 2
Atlantic Ocean: and an historic signal, 1; and the convoy system, 2; and the first transatlantic telephone calls, 3; first solo flight across, 4; naval struggle in (1939–45), 5; Chinese nuclear fall-out reaches Canadian and American seaboard of, 6; and the Falklands War, 7; and the sinking of a Soviet nuclear submarine, 8
Atlas mountains: 'pacification' in, 1
atomic bombs: dropped, introduction; evolution of, 2, 3; dropped on Hiroshima, 4; dropped on Nagasaki, 5; tests with, 6, 7, 8; secrets of, betrayed, 9; not to be dropped on China or Manchuria (during Korean War), 10; and disarmament, 11; Britain tests, 12; America tests, 13, 14; America's policy concerning, 15; and NATO, 16; 'Asia will never forget…', 17; and the Hydrogen Bomb, 18; and an American warning, 19; and a bombing raid on Iraq, 20; and a fiftieth anniversary pledge, 21
atomic energy (for domestic use): 1, 2, 3; and nuclear powered pacemakers, 4; and Chernobyl, 5
Attila the Hun: recalled, 1
Attlee, Clement: denounces Munich Agreement, 1; appeals to Stalin, 2; at Potsdam, 3; and Indian independence, 4; and the partition of Palestine, 5; and the Soviet Union, 6
Aubers Ridge, Battle of (1915): 1
Audubon Society: founded, 1
Augsburg: bombed, 1
August Wilhelm, Prince: supports Nazis, 1
Aung San Suu Kyi: demands free elections, 1
Aurora (cruiser): captain of, murdered, 1; blank shells fired by, 2
Auschwitz: a concentration camp at, established, 1; its destructive power, 2; extended (to include Birkenau), 3; Rome's Jews sent to, 4; Hungary's Jews sent to, 5; Anne Frank and her family deported to, 6; a revolt at, 7; Russian troops reach, 8
Austin Motor Company: founded, 1
Austria: as created by the Treaty of St Germain, 1; retains Carinthia, 2; financial rehabilitation of, 3; Nazis in, 4; and war debts to the United States, 5; and Italy, 6; fascists acquitted in, 7; rise of Fascism in, 8; demands for union with Germany in, 9; democracy preserved in, 10; and the Austro-German Customs Union, 11; 'Hitlerites' in, 12; and Hitler's Germany, 13, 14, 15, 16; Austrian Nazis in, 17, 18, 19; and the Spanish Civil War, 20; and South Tyrol, 21; anti-Nazis in, protest in Nuremberg, 22; annexed by Germany, 23; a future President of, in wartime Greece, 24; to be divided into Allied zones of occupation, 25; post-1945 international conflict in, 26, 27; sends reparations to Russia, 28; independence of, restored (1955), 29; and the Hungarian Revolution (1956), 30; its border with Czechoslovakia fortified, 31; and Chernobyl, 32; its border fence with Hungary, dismantled, 33; does not buy American arms, 34
Austria-Hungary: ethnic divisions in, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and the Olympic Games, 8; and Macedonia, 9; annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, 10; and the path to war (1909–14), 11, 12, 13, 14; and the First World War, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29; disintegrates, 30; dismembered, 31; debts of, not to be paid to Austria, 32; the heir to, meets a Cardinal, 33
Austrians: rescue a Chinese Christian, 1
Australia: Aborigines of, 1; votes for women in, 2; receives German Mandates, 3; and Southern Ireland, 4; and India, 5; excessive sheep farming in, 6; and global health, 7; and the Second World War, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; and the Korean War, 13, 14; and Malaysia, 15; nuclear tests in, 16; missile tests in, 17; and Vietnam, 18; and Ethiopia, 19
Australian and New Zealand troops (ANZACS): at Gallipoli, 1, 2; evacuated from Greece to Crete, 3
Austro-German Customs Union (1931): in prospect, 1
Automobile Association: founded, 1
Aviation Ministry (Berlin): becomes Finance Ministry, 1
Aydid, General: in Somalia, 1; evades capture, 2
Ayodhya (India): a mosque destroyed in, 1
Azana, Manuel: appeals for unity, 1; faced by insurgency, 2; flees into exile, 3
Azerbaijan: independent, 1; annexed by the Soviet Union, 2; disturbances in, 3, 4; declares war on Armenia, 5; becomes independent, 6
Azeris: in conflict with Armenians, 1, 2, 3, 4
BBC: an Iranian poet interviewed on, 1
Baalbek (Lebanon): bombed, 1
Babi Yar (Kiev): Jews murdered in, 1
'Baby': an early computer, 1
Babylon: and Berlin, 1
Bach: 'bourgeois', 1
'Backfire' bomber: nuclear-armed, 1
Bad Godesberg: Chamberlain flies to see Hitler at, 1
Baden: a Nazi Party ban in, revoked, 1
Baganda tribe (Uganda): persecuted, 1
Baghdad: troops advance towards (1915), 1; British forces enter (1917), 2; a nuclear reactor near, attacked (1981), 3; the city bombed (1991), 4, 5; and a plot to assassinate President Bush, 6
Baghdad Pact (1955): signed 1
Baird, John Logie: and the first television transmission, 1
Bakelite: invented, 1
Bakhtiar, Dr Shahpur: invites back Ayatollah Khomeini, 1; resigns and leaves, 2
Baku: unrest in, 1, 2; a former prisoner in, presides over show trials, 3; Germans advance towards, but fail to capture, 4; Azeris and Armenians fight in, 5
Bakuvu (Katanga): Congolese forces take control of, 1
Baldwin, Stanley: and the 'bitter cup' of war, 1
Balfour, A. J,: replaces Churchill, 1; supports Jewish National Home, 2
Balkan League: makes war on Turkey, 1
Balkans: unrest in, 1, 2; assassinations in, 3, 4; and the path to war (1909–14), 5; and the First World War, 6; Moscow propaganda in, 7; Italian influence in, 8; a nuclear-free zone proposed for, 9
Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS): a radar-based defence system, 1
Baltic Front: Russian troops throw down arms on (1917), 1
Baltic Provinces (of Russia): and the 1905 Revolution, 1, 2, 3; repression in, 4; Russia gives up, 5; and the anti-Bolshevik Russians, 6; Hitler gives Stalin control of, 7; Stalin annexes, 8; post-1945 conflict in, 9; Soviet rule in, 10, 11; dissent in, 12; nationalist demands in, 13; declare independence, 14; final struggle for independence in, 15, 16; former Soviet troops to withdraw from, 17
Baltic Sea: and Great Power rivalry, 1; a canal links, 2, 3; Soviet territorial gains on, 4; and the range of a Polaris missile, 5; a German NATO commander in, 6; Soviet rule stretches from, to the Pacific, 7; Soviet manoeuvres in, 8, 9
Bamboo Curtain: cuts off China from the world, 1, 2
Banat: Roumania covets, 1; becomes part of Yugoslavia, 2
Banda, Dr Hastings: leads nationalist revolt in Nyasaland, 1; invited to London, 2
Bandung Conference (1955): 1
Bang, Nina: a woman Cabinet Minister, 1
Bangladesh: created, 1; famine in, 2; floods in, 3, 4; poverty of, 5; struggle for power in, 6; and smallpox, 7, 8; tornado in, 9; refugees in, 10; refugees from, 11; a devastating cyclone in, 12
Bank of America: launches credit card, 1
Bantustans: and apartheid, 1; violence in, 2
Bao Dai, Emperor: visits Paris, 1
Baptists: in the Soviet Union, 1
Barak, Ehud: continues with the peace process, 1
Barcelona: riots in, 1, 2, 3; anti-war meeting in (1910), 4; Catalan bombings in, 5, 6; a bomb plot near, 7; fighting in (1936), 8; loyal to the Republic, 9; internecine struggles in, 10; bombed, 11; Franco's forces enter, 12; the Soviet Consul in, recalled—and vanishes, 13; a car bomb in, 14; Olympics in (1992), 15
Barga Mongols: rebel against Chinese rule, 1
Bari: unrest in, 1
Barnard, Dr Christaan: and the first heart transplant, 1
Barrio, Diego Martinez: appointed President (of Spain), but remains in exile, 1
'Barter Exchanges': in the United States, 1
Barthou, Louis: killed, 1
Basque Region: separatism in, 1; and the Spanish Republic, 2; civil war in, 3; resistance in, crushed, 4; regional liberties of, suppressed, 5; repression in, 6; extremist terrorism in, 7
Basra: troops land at (1915), 1; more troops land at (1916), 2; Iran fails to capture (1982), 3
Basutoland: becomes independent, as Lesotho, 1
Bataan Peninsula (Philippines): struggle for, 1; a prisoner of war from, witnesses the surrender of Japan, 2; evacuation of, not to be repeated in Korea, 3
Bath: bombed, 1
Batista, President: a failed coup against, 1; repression by, 2; revolution against, 3; flies into exile, 4
Battle of Britain (1940): fought 1
Batum: unrest in, 1
Bauer, Gustav: flees to Dresden, 1
Bavaria: Communist revolution in, 1, 2; Hitler in, 3; Hitler attempts to seize power in, 4; Hitler brought to trial in, 5; a Nazi Party ban in, revoked, 6; Hitler refuses to seek a hideaway in, 7
Bavarian Socialist Republic: proclaimed (1918), 1
Bavarian Soviet: established (1919), 1
Bay of Pigs (Cuba): an invasion attempt at, 1
Beatles: tour the United States, 1; and John Lennon's murder, 2
Bebel, August: and the causes of war, 1
Bechuanaland: becomes independent, as Botswana, 1
Beethoven: 'bourgeois', 1; rehabilitated, 2
Begin, Menachem: comes to power in Israel, 1; and the Camp David Accords, 2; signs peace treaty with Egypt, 3; orders attack on Iraq's nuclear reactor, 4; and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 5
Begun, Iosif: a 'Prisoner of Zion', 1; released, and allowed to emigrate, 2
Beijing (formerly Peking): the Tiananmen Square massacre in, 1; details made public in, of starvation in North Korea, 2; pro-democracy activists sentenced in, 3
Beirut: PLO headquarters in, 1; civil war in, 2, 3; Israel's attack on, 4; suicide attacks in, 5; and a hijacking, 6; Hizbullah positions in, bombed, 7
Belarus (formerly Byelorussia): becomes independent, 1; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 2; dictatorial powers in, 3
Belet Huen (Somalia): food distribution in, 1
Belfast: a separate Parliament for, 1, 2; violence in, 3; 'No-go' areas in, 4; riots in, 5; killings in, 6, 7, 8; negotiations in, 9, 10
Belgian Congo: terror in, 1; unrest in, 2; struggle for independence in, 3; for subsequent index entries see Congo (Léopoldville)
Belgium: unrest in, 1; and the coming of war (1909–14), 2, 3; and the First World War, 4, 5, 6; and reparations, 7, 8; and the 1920 Olympics, 9; joins with France to occupy Ruhr, 10; and China, 11; and war debts to the United States, 12, 13; and the Locarno Treaties, 14, 15; and the first woman Mayor, 16; increases its fortifications, 17; Germany offers Non-Aggression Pact to, 18; planned German invasion of, 19; surrenders, 20; war dead of (May 1940), 21; punishment camp in, 22; resistance in, 23, 24; rocket bomb deaths in, 25; and the future of Germany, 26; and European unity, 27; and NATO, 28; and the Korean War, 29; and the European Defence Community, 30; and a 'single market', 31; and the Common Market, 32; and the Congo, 33; and Zaire, 34; an area the size of, burnt in Brazil, 35; and NATO's war against Serbia, 36
Belgorodskaya, Irina: imprisoned, 1
Belgrade: and Serb nationalism, 1; murders in, 2; and the German Kaiser, 3; an ultimatum delivered in, 4; an ambassador recalled from, 5; a proposed occupation of, 6; bombarded, 7; unconquered, 8; conquered, 9; the Yugoslav parliament in, 10, 11; riots in, 12; royal dictatorship established in, 13; a revolution in, 14; bombed, 15; occupied by Germany, 16; Non-Aligned Nations meet in, 17; the Helsinki Final Act signed in (1977), 18; arrest in, 19; and the fighting in Bosnia, 20; and Kosovo, 21, 22; and NATO's war against Serbia, 23, 24; government in, hands over Milosevic for trial, 25
Belize (formerly British Honduras): in dispute with Guatemala, 1
Bell, Alan: assassinated in Dublin, 1
Belostotsky, I. S.: nominated by Lenin, 1
Belsen: Anne Frank and her sister die in, 1; reached by British forces, 2
Ben Bella, Mohammed Ahmed: and Algeria's path to independence, 1; visits Moscow, 2
Ben Gurion Airport (Israel): Sadat lands at, 1
Beneš, Edouard: strengthens Little Entente, 1; and the Sudetenland, 2, 3; and the Munich Conference, 4; and the German annexation of Bohemia and Moravia, 5; his portrait hoisted aloft, 6
Beneš, Jan: organizes a protest, and imprisoned, 1; released, 2
Bengal: an assassination attempt in, 1; nationalist activity in, 2, 3; Hindu-Muslim violence in, 4; to be partitioned, 5
Benghazi: occupied, 1, 2; hijackers reach, 3
Bennett, Richard: and Canada's 'New Deal', 1
Beran, Archbishop: restrictions on, 1; released from prison, but still restricted, 2
Berbers: beaten off, 1; and German designs on Morocco, 2
Berchtesgaden: Schuschnigg summoned to, 1; Chamberlain flies to, 2; American forces enter, 3
Berchtold, Count: and the coming of war in 1914, 1, 2
Bering Straits: a nuclear-powered submarine passes through, 1
Berkeley (California): violence on university campus at, 1
Berlin: Poles in, accused, 1; Irish recruited in, 2; anti-imperialist sentiment in, 3; social unrest in, 4; commercial Zeppelin service to, 5; and the coming of war in 1914, 6, 7, 8; 'all aboard for', 9; a last warning to, 10; peacemaking not attractive to, 11; a Peace Resolution in, 12; a German Soviet Republic proclaimed in, 13; revolutionaries crushed in, 14; orders from, to crush revolution in Munich, 15; right-wing putsch in, 16; a Jew assassinated in (1922), 17; Hitler advocates match on (1923), 18, 19; Hitler blames government in, 20; 'that sinful Babylon', 21; Hitler speaks in (1928), 22; Jews attacked in (1930), 23; and the Austro-German treaty (1930), 24; further attacks on Jews in (1932), 25; Hitler's first speech in, as Chancellor, 26; first direct flight from New York to, 27; Hitler orders death of Nazi opponents in, 28; denunciation of Czechoslovakia in, 29; Olympic Games in, 30; alleged 'anti-Soviet' centre in, 31; an American ambassador in, warns of 'medievalism', 32; Dr Hacha summoned to, 33; Professor Burkhart summoned to, 34; Soviet negotiators in, 35; a Polish negotiator summoned to, 36; orders despatched from, read by Enigma, 37; bombed, 38; and German war dead (June–October 1941), 39; the watches of murdered Jews sent to, 40; fears in, of a Hungarian betrayal, 41; and the Hitler Bomb Plot, 42; Hitler's last months in, 43, 44, 45; Russians advance against, 46, 47; encircled, 48; Hitler commits suicide in, 49; surrenders, 50; placed under Four-Power control, 51; Cold War conflict in, 52; East Germans reach West Germany through, 53; Foreign Ministers meet in, 54; emigration through, 55, 56; talks to open about, 57; a crisis over (1961), 58; and detente, 59; German capital city returns to, 60
Berlin Opera House: a bonfire of books in front of, 1
Berlin Wall: built, 1; Kennedy visits, 2; completed, 3; remains in place, 4; dismantled, 5
Bermuda Conference (1953): Churchill and Eisenhower meet at, 1
Bernhardt, Sara: stars, 1
Bessarabia: Russia accepts loss of (1918), 1
Bethlehem (West Bank): Israeli forces withdraw from, 1
Bethlehem Steel: created, 1
Bethlen, Count: condemns liberalism and democracy, 1
Bethmann-Hollweg, von: and the path to war (1913–14), 1, 2
Bevan, Aneurin: resigns, 1
Bhindranwale, Sant: killed, 1
Bhopal: an industrial disaster in, 1
Bialystok: pogrom in, 1; Polish anti-Soviet demonstrations in, 2
Biblical Israel: and opinion polls, 1
Biehl, Amy: murdered in South Africa, 1
'Big Brother': totalitarian control of, 1
Bihac (Bosnia): fighting in, 1, 2
Bihar: earthquake in, 1; Hindu-Muslim violence in, 2
Bikini Atoll: atomic bomb test on, 1; Hydrogen bomb test on, 2
Biko, Steve: murdered, 1; and the Black Consciousness movement, 2; and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 3
Bilbao (Spain): loyal to the Republic, 1
'Billion-Dollar Corporation': formed, 1
Binh Gia (Vietnam): Vietcong attack, 1
Bir Zeit University (West Bank): closed down, 1
Birdseye, Charles: his deep-freeze food process, 1
Birkenau: see index entry Auschwitz
Birmingham (Alabama): Martin Luther King campaigns in, 1
Birmingham (England): two bombs detonated in, 1
Bismarck (battleship): its final three days, 1
Black and Tans: in Ireland, 1; disbanded, 2
Black Consciousness movement: in South Africa, 1, 2, 3
Black Hundreds: attack Jews, 1
Black Sea: Khrushchev on holiday at, plotted against, 1; a cruise liner sinks in, 2; Gorbachev on holiday at, plotted against, 3; and the former Black Sea Fleet, 4
'Black Thursday': stock market collapse on (1929), 1; Austrian repetition of (1931), 2
Blackshirts: in Italy, 1; in Britain, 2
Blair, Tony: becomes Prime Minister, 1; and Northern Ireland, 2, 3; and the post-Cold War world, 4; warns China, about Hong Kong, 5; and NATO's war against Serbia, 6
Blériot, Louis: his pioneering flight, 1
Blitz (German bombing raids on Britain): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; and the British bombing of Cologne, 6
Bloch, Dora: murdered, while in hospital, 1
'Bloody Sunday': in Northern Ireland, 1
Bluff Cove (Falklands): a landing at, 1
Blum, Léon: leads Popular Front, 1; becomes Prime Minister, 2; a prisoner of the Germans, liberated, 3; forms post-war government, 4
Boat People: flee Vietnam, 1, 2
Bock's Car (bomber): drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki, 1
Boer War (1899–1902): 1, 2, 3; and a First World War parallel, 4
Bohemia: demands of, 1; German language imposed on, 2; fear of revolution in, 3; becomes part of Czechoslovakia, 4; becomes a German protectorate (with Moravia), 5; Hitler determined not to lose, 6
Bokassa, Colonel: declares himself 'emperor', 1
Bolivia: flooding in, 1; debt reduction for, 2
Bolsheviks: come into being, 1; and the 1905 Revolution in Russia, 2; and the Prague Conference (1912), 3; urge an end to the war (1915–17), 4; call for end to war (1917), 5; fail to seize power (July 1917), 6; renew activities, 7; seize power in Petrograd, 8; negotiate peace (1917–18), 9; and the Russian Civil War (1919–20), 10; an account of the suffering exacted by, criticized, 11
Bolshoi Ballet: and Stalin's seventieth birthday, 1; in London, 2; tours the United States, 3
Bomb Plot (against Hitler): 1
Bombay: Gandhi welcomed at, 1; strikes in, 2; riots in, 3; scenes of starvation in, 4
bombing raids: see index entry aerial bombardment Bonar Law, Andrew: 'We cannot act alone…', 1; becomes Prime Minister, 2
Bondarenko (a Stalin appointee): arrested, 1
Bonn: becomes a capital, 1; Kohl and Gorbachev meet in, 2; ceases to be a capital, 3
Borba (journal): calls for liberalization in Yugoslavia, 1
Borisov, Vladimir: arrested, and confined, 1; expelled, 2
Borneo: and Malaysia, 1
Borodin, General (Mikhail Grusenberg): sent by Stalin to China, 1
Bose, Subash Chandra: imprisoned, 1
Bosnia-Herzegovina: ethnic conflict in, 1, 2, 3, 4; annexed by Austria-Hungary, 5, 6; and the path to war (1909–14), 7, 8, 9, 10; ethnic divisions in, 11; demonstrations in, 12; becomes part of Yugoslavia, 13; a former partisan leader in, calls for liberalization, 14; votes to become independent, 15, 16; admitted to the United Nations, 17; NATO's intervention in, 18; renewed fighting in, 19; and war crimes, 20, 21, 22; anti-personnel mine victims in, 23, 24
Bosnian Serbs: call for 'Greater Serbia', 1; and 'ethnic cleansing', 2; and a NATO intervention, 3, 4, 5; and war crimes, 6, 7 Bosphorus: Allies control (1918–22), 8
Botha, General Louis: opposes equality for blacks, 1
Botha, P. W.: and South-West Africa, 1; and South Africa, 2
Bourgiba, Habib: and Tunisian independence, 1
Bourj-el-Barajneh (refugee camp): besieged, 1
Boutros Ghali: assassinated, 1
Bouvet (French warship): sunk, 1
Boxer rebellion: in China, 1; and the Boxer Indemnity, 2; recalled, 3
Brandenberg Gate (Berlin): Red Flag torn down from, 1
Brandt, Willy: warns about the 'North-South' divide, 1
Bratislava: Slovak independence declared in (1939), 1; protests in (1953), 2; further protests in (1956), 3; renewed protests in (1988), 4; the Slovak capital (1992), 5
Braun, Eva: Hitler marries, 1; commits suicide, 2
Brazil: rebels in, cross into Paraguay, 1; forests in, cut down, 2; a 'protected' rain forest in, 3; species facing extinction in, 4
Bremen: a leaflet raid on, 1
Bremerhaven: troops leave from, 1
Brenner Pass: tension at, 1; Hitler and Mussolini meet at, 2
Brest-Litovsk: peace negotiations at (1918), 1; and the Russo-Polish War (1920), 2
Breuer, Charles: his tubular chair, 1
Brezhnev, Leonid: rules the Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3; and the Middle East, 4; meets President Ford, 5; meets President Carter, 6; and human rights, 7; and Afghanistan, 8; and Poland, 9; dies, 10
Briand, Aristide: opposes strikers, 1; supports Peace Pact (to outlaw war), 2, 3
Bride of Frankenstein (film): 1
Brighton: an IRA bomb attack in, 1
'Brilliant Eyes' and 'Brilliant Pebbles': a satellite defence system, inaugurated, and cancelled, 1
Brinks Hotel (Saigon): a bomb attack on, 1
Britain: and the Labour Parry, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; and China, 6, 7; and Ireland, 8, 9, 10, 11; and the Olympic Games, 12; immigration to, 13; and the Russo-Japanese war, 14; and Macedonia, 15; and the coming of war (in 1914), 16; and the motor car, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21; and garden suburbs, 22, 23; railway deaths in, 24; and Turkey, 25, 26; and Germany (1908–14), 27, 28, 29, 30, 31; and Egypt, 32, 33, 34; and town planning, 35; the first department store in, 36; social reforms in (pre-1914), 37, 38; naval power of, 39, 40, 41; social unrest in, 42; and the United States, 43, 44, 45; and the coming of war (in 1914), 46; and the first five months of war, 47; troops of, in 1915, 48, 49, 50; and gas warfare, 51, 52, 53; comes to aid of Serbia, 54; evacuates Gallipoli, 55; and the fighting in 1916, 56, 57, 58; determined to continue war, 59; and the fighting in 1917, 60, 61; and the fighting in 1918, 62, 63, 64; and the Jewish National Home, 65, 66, 67; intervenes in Russia, 68; withdraws from Russia, 69; and the Supreme Allied Council, 70; and the French occupation of the Ruhr (1920), 71; supports Poland (1920), 72; and the Turkish treaty, 73; in Mesopotamia (Iraq), 74, 75; Soviet trade agreement with, 76; and naval disarmament, 77; challenged by Mustafa Kemal, 78; sends earthquake relief to Japan (1923), 79; recognizes Soviet Union (1924), 80; breaks off relations with Soviet Union (1924), 81; seeks mediation against Soviet repression in Georgia, 82; reluctant to sign Geneva Protocol, 83; and German reparations, 84; evacuates Cologne, 85; General Strike in, 86; and Chinese anti-foreigner riots, 87; suspends relations with Soviet Union, 88; signs treaty with China, 89; agrees to final reparations figure, 90; warns Austria, 91; mediates in Shanghai, 92; and Hitler's Germany, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97; and a Soviet show trial, 98; Jewish emigrants to, 99, 100; and German rearmament, 101; and radar, 102; volunteers from, in Spain, 103; Fascist movement in, 104; and the German annexation of Czechoslovakia, 105; and Poland, 106; declares war on Germany, 107; and the Norwegian Campaign, 108; and the fall of France, 109; war dead of (by June 1940), 110; air Battle of (1940), 111; and the Blitz, 112, 113, 114, 115; and Greece, to be defended, 116; and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, 117, aid to Russia from, 118; fate of prisoners of war of, in Japanese captivity, 119, 120, 121; and the fall of Singapore, 122; renewed German bombing raids on, 123; and the bombing of Cologne, 124; and the defence of Egypt, 125; and the Dieppe raid, 126; and the intensification of the bombing of Germany, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131; helps Tito, 132; and the Normandy Landings, 133; and the Warsaw Uprising, 134, 135; and the defeat of Germany, 136, 137; rocket bomb deaths in, 138; Attlee replaces Churchill as Prime Minister of, 139; and Indochina, 140; and Palestine, 141, 142, 143, 144; and Cyprus, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149; takes in Holocaust survivors, 150; and Indian independence, 151; and post-war Germany, 152; and post-war Czechoslovakia, 153; and post-war Roumania, 154; and post-war Bulgaria, 155, 156; and the emergence of Israel, 157, 158; domestic policies in (post-1945), 159, 160, 161; and the Berlin Blockade, 162; and the Berlin Crisis, 163; and European unity, 164, 165, 166; and NATO, 167; and Communist China, 168, 169, 170; and the nuclear arms race, 171, 172, 173; and an 'atom spy', 174; and the Korean War, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183; and the Cold War, 184, 185, 186, 187; and Persia, 188; and British Guiana, 189, 190; life expectancy in, 191; lung cancer in, 192; joins Baghdad Pact, 193; and Austrian independence (1955), 194; and Cyprus, 195, 196, 197; and nuclear energy, 198; and the Suez Crisis, 199, 200, 201; and the Asian 'flu, 202; tests its first Hydrogen bomb, 203; tests long-range missiles, 204; and the end of Empire, 205, 206; signs Test Ban Treaty, 207; signs Non-Proliferation treaty, 208; and Singapore, 209; and Southern Rhodesia, 210, 211, 212; and Vietnam, 213, 214; and the Straits of Tiran, 215; and violence in Northern Ireland (from 1969), 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221; Indian immigrants to, 222; releases imprisoned Palestinians, 223; and legislation on pollution, 224; and the bicentennial of America's independence from, 225; Guatemala refuses earthquake help from, 226; aids poorest countries, 227; Somalia appeals to, 228; and the Falklands War, 229; leases an island to the United States, 230; flights to Moscow from, suspended, 231; peacekeepers from, in Lebanon, 232; sends emergency aid to Ethiopia, 233; and arms sales, 234; and the environment, 235; and Chernobyl, 236; and Afghanistan, 237; and Libya, 238; and the cellular telephone, 239; and the European Union, 240; an airliner on its way from, blown up over Scotland, 241; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 242; and the Gulf War, 243; and Bosnia, 244, 245, 246; and Somalia, 247; and reunited Germany, 248; and Mandela's South Africa, 249; and Rwanda, 250; and a culmination of nuclear disarmament, 251; leaves Hong Kong, 252; intervenes in Kosovo, 253, 254, 255; an area the size of, protected in Brazil, 256; and Sierra Leone, 257; and NATO's war against Serbia, 258, 259
British Columbia: a town destroyed by fire in, 1
British Empire: at war, in South Africa, 1, 2; in China, 3; in Africa, 4; and Tibet, 5; and the Australian Aborigines, 6; 'pacification' in, 7; and Siam, 8; British rule ending in, 9, 10; the remnants of, gain independence, 11
British Expeditionary Force: in France, 1; and the Dunkirk evacuation, 2
British Guiana: British rule challenged in, 1; Britain sends troops to, 2
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC): and jet travel, 1
British Somaliland: becomes independent, 1; for subsequent index entries see Somalia
British Union of Fascists (BUF): marches in London, 1
Brno: a hero from, becomes President of Czechoslovakia, 1
Brodsky, Iosif: expelled, 1
Brooke, Senator Edward: the first black Senator, 1
Brooklyn (New York): violence in, 1
Brown versus Board of Education: and a judgement against segregation, 1
Brownshirts ('Stormtroops'): created (1921), 1; in action in Bavaria (1923), 2; and Hitler's attempt to seize power in Munich (1923), 3; active, 4, 5, 6; attack Jews, 7, 8; permitted to operate, 9; and Versailles, 10; and the early years of the Nazi regime, 11, 12, 13
Brundtland, Mrs Gro Harlem: and Our Common Future, 1
Brunei, Sultan of: his wealth, 1
Brüning, Dr: forms government in Germany, 1; uses Enabling Act, 2; remains Chancellor, 3, 4; and a German-Austrian customs union, 5; replaced, 6; his Minister of Defence, becomes Chancellor, 7
Brusilov, General: his military offensive (1917), 1, 2
Brussels: revolutionaries meet in (1903), 1; Germans occupy (1940), 2; a treaty for European unity signed in (1948), 3; a conference in, for Congolese independence, 4 Brussels Treaty (1948): and the evolution of 'Europe', 5
Bucharest: German troops enter (1916), 1; a King abdicates in (1947), 2; a Cominform meeting in (1949), 3; and the overthrow of Ceausescu (1989), 4
Buchenwald: bombed, in error, 1; reprisals in, 2; reached by American forces, 3
Buckingham Palace: enthusiastic crowds at, 1
Budapest: angry scenes in, 1, 2; Croat demands in, 3; and 'the Hungarian State', 4; a strike in, 5; a Hungarian National Council in, 6; Roumanians occupy, 7; an arms shipment to, 8; Jewish students in, attacked, 9; Russian troops reach, 10; German troops in, surrender, 11; Communists seize power in, 12; a trial in, 13; revolution in (1956), 14, 15, 16, 17; anti-Soviet pressure in (1988), 18; calls for democracy and independence in, 19
Buddhists: in China, 1, 2; in Siberia, 3; in Sri Lanka, 4, 5; in Tibet, 6, 7; in Vietnam, 8
Budennovsk: Chechen fighters seize, 1
Buenos Aires: a state of siege in, 1; a terrorist bomb in, 2
Buffalo (New York State): an assassination in, 1
Bug River: Russian troops cross, 1
Bukhara: earthquake in, 1; Bolsheviks annex, 2
Bukharin, Nikolai: promoted, 1; accused, 2; expelled, 3; brought to trial, 4
Bukovina: Roumania covets, 1
Bukovsky, Vladimir: appeals against psychiatric abuse, 1; sentenced, 2; allowed to emigrate, 3
Bulganin, Marshal Nikolai: and Bulgaria, 1
Bulgaria: Muslims in, 1; independent, 2, 3; and Macedonia, 4; and the First Balkan War, 5, 6; and the Second Balkan War, 7; and the First World War, 8, 9, 10, 11; seeks armistice, 12; granted armistice, 13; and the Treaty of Neuilly, 14; forms Anti-Bolshevik League, 15; troops of, in action against Germany (1945), 16; post-war Communist rule in, 17, 18, 19, 20; joins Warsaw Pact, 21; and Czechoslovakia, 22; and perestroika and glasnost, 23; a pro-democracy rally in, 24; Communist rule in, collapses, 25, 26; a fraud charge in, 27
Bulgarians: in Macedonia, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; in Turkey, 7
Bülow, Count von: describes Poles as rabbits, 1; indignant, 2
Burgenland: becomes part of Austria, 1
Bürgerbraü beer cellar (Munich): and Hitler's attempt to seize power in Munich (1923), 1
Burgos: Franco rules from, 1
Burian, Baron: and peace negotiations (1918), 1
Burkhart, Professor Carl: summoned to Berlin, 1
Burma: Japan invades, 1, 2; fate of Allied prisoners of war in, 3; resistance in, 4; independence for, 5; technical aid for, 6; refugees from, 7; the struggle for democracy in, 8
'Burma Road': links China to India, 1; seized by Japan, 2
Bursa: Mustafa Kemal occupies (1920), 1
Burundi: massacres in, 1, 2
Buryat Mongol Republic: repression in, 1
Bush, George: and hijacking, 1; meets Gorbachev, 2, 3, 4; and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, 5; sends ultimatum to Iraq, 6; orders troops to Somalia, 7; and the chemical weapons convention, 8
Bush, George W.: revives 'Brilliant Eyes' and 'Brilliant Pebbles', 1
Buthelezi, Mangosuthu: calls for an end to killings, 1, 2; apologizes for killings, 3
Butler, Nicholas Murray: his hopes for mankind, 1
Buttman, Dr Rudolph: Hitler's ally, 1
Butto, Zulfikar Ali: and the break-up of Pakistan, 1
Bydgoszcz (Poland): civil unrest in, 1
Byelorussia (White Russia): Russia accepts loss of (1918), 1; Poland acquires much of, 2; Stalin's purge in, 3; Soviet rule in, 4; seeks independence, 5; declares independence, 6; for subsequent index entries see Belarus
Byelorussians: in eastern Poland) 1
Byrnes, James: 'we must act as a Great Power', 1
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons): warnings about, 1, 2
Caballero, Largo: heads the Spanish Republic, 1; replaced, 2
Caen: battle for (1944), 1
Cairo: munitions factories near, bombed (1970), 1; Sadat speaks in, announcing his visit to Israel (1977), 2; flights to Tel Aviv from (from 1978), 3; Sadat assassinated in (1981), 4; a gun battle in (1993), 5; Clinton visits, as part of peace mission (1994), 6 Cairo Agreement (1994): between Israel and the PLO, 7
Calais: a flight from, 1; German designs on, 2; evacuated (1940), 3
Calcutta: a bomb factory in, 1; a nationalist demonstration in, 2; a Viceregal warning in, 3; Hindu-Muslim riots in, 4, 5; Mother Theresa in, 6
California: the first 'motel' opened in, 1; Disneyland opens in, 2; credit card launched in, 3; Robert Kennedy assassinated in, 4; a boycott in, 5; and student violence, 6; and the terminally ill, 7; a former Governor of, becomes President, 8
Caliphate: abolished, 1
Callaghan, James: and Northern Ireland, 1
Cambodia: and France, 1; and Vietnam, 2: and the United States, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; civil war in, 8, 9; Communists come to power in, 10; Canada sends aid to, 11; Pol Pot's regime in, 12; refugees from, 13: land-mine victims in, 14
Cambodians: fate of, introduction
Cambrai: battle of (1917), 1; British advance near (1918), 2
Camel cigarettes: advertised, 1
Cameroons: agreement on, 1; punitive measures in, 2
Camp David Accords (1978): between Egypt and Israel, 1; the next step in, 2; American aid as a result of, 3
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND): its first public meeting, 1
Campbell-Bannerman, Henry: protests, 1
Canada: immigrants to, 1; and the 1904 Olympics, 2; a town in, destroyed by fire, 3; troops of, in action (1914–18), 4, 5; and Southern Ireland, 6; and Dominion Status, 7; and the 1929 stock market crash, 8; and wheat for China, 9; a 'New Deal' for, 10; and the Spanish Civil War, 11; and a First World War memorial, 12; refugees on way to, torpedoed, 13; and the Second World War, 14, 15, 16; and post-war Czechoslovakia, 17; and NATO, 18; and Soviet nuclear policy, 19; and the Korean War, 20, 21, 22; and a radar defence system, 23, 24; and Quemoy and Matsu islands, 25; and nuclear energy, 26, 27; evolving prosperity in, 28; a negotiator from, in Vietnam, 29, 30; Chinese nuclear fall-out on, 31; and Poland, 32; and Vietnam, 33; bans DDT, 34; affected by 'acid rain', 35; and Jewish emigration from the Soviet Union, 36; sells grain to China, 37; sends aid to Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, 38; takes in Boat People, 39; and South Africa, 40; boycotts Moscow Olympics, 41; aids Ethiopia, 42; opposes Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 43; airlifts food to former Soviet Republics, 44; and regional trade, 45; a South African sports team plays in, 46; and NATO's war against Serbia, 47; sends peacekeepers to Kosovo, 48 Canadian troops: in the First World War, 49, in; in the Second World War, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57; in Korea, 58, 59; in Somalia, 60
Canary Islands: Spanish democrats banished to, 1
Canberra: Dulles's journey to, 1
Cancer: and cigarette smoking, 1, 2, 3, 4; Nixon calls for war on, 5; and Chernobyl, 6; and the ozone layer, 7
Cannes: an emergency conference in (1922), 1
Cantigny: American soldiers capture (1918), 1
Canton: a republic proclaimed at, 1; Kuomintang government in, 2, 3; Mao Tse-tung active in, 4; Chiang Kai-shek challenged in, 5; Japanese enter, 6
Cape Colony: attacked, 1
Cape Helles: landing at (1915), 1; evacuation of (1916), 2
Cape Town: and the 'wind of change', 1; and 'a tiny ripple of hope', 2; Mandela welcomed in, 3; De Klerk and Mandela meet in, 4
Cape Town University: integration ended at, 1
Cape Verde: drought in, 1
Capone, Al ('Scarface'): and the St Valentine's Day Massacre, 1; imprisoned, 2
Caporetto, Battle for (1917): 1
Captive Nations Resolution (1950–): Khrushchev protests to Nixon about, 1
Cardiff: social unrest in, 1
Caribbean Sea: an island in, invaded, 1
Carinthia: Austria retains, 1
Carlucci, Frank: and detente, 1
Carmona, General: his dictatorship, 1
Caroline Islands: revolt on, suppressed, 1
Carter, Jimmy: becomes President, 1; and South Korea, 2; and the Middle East, 3, 4, 5; and Iran, 6; and nuclear disarmament, 7; and Cuba, 8; and Afghanistan, 9, 10; and the Iranian hostage crisis, 11, 12; defeated by Reagan, 13
Casablanca: Churchill and Roosevelt meet at, 1
Casement, Roger: exposes terror, 1; his fatal treason, 2
Caspian Sea: steady evaporation of, 1; Soviet rule from, to the Arctic and the Pacific, 2; pollution in, 3; Muslim separatism at, 4
Caspian-Black Sea Canal: built by slave labour, 1
Castries, Colonel de: besieged, 1
Castro, Fidel: imprisoned, 1; amnestied, 2; leads revolution, 3; comes to power, 4; visits Moscow, 5
Cat Country (novel): the author of, commits suicide, 1
Catalonia: Primo de Rivera's harshness against, 1; separatism in, 2; autonomy to be restored in, 3; and the Spanish Republic, 4; fighting in, 5; defenders of, overwhelmed, 6; regional liberties of, suppressed, 7; repression in, 8
Caucasus: revolutionary movement in, 1, 2; earthquake in, 3; repression in, 4; loses Duma seats, 5; Russia agrees to give up, 6; Denikin advances from, 7; Soviet hopes for, dashed, 8; executions in, 9; purge in, 10; fighting in, during the Second World War, 11, 12, 13, 14
Cawnpore: Hindu-Muslim riots in, 1
Ceausescu, President: his rule in Roumania, 1; his overthrow, 2
Central African Federation: British rule challenged in, 1
Central African Republic: becomes independent from France, 1; an 'emperor' declared in, 2; and a human rights appeal, 3
Central Asian Republics (of the Soviet Union): religious persecution in, 1; Muslim republics in, 2; Islamic fervour in, 3; within American bombing range, 4; new mosques built in, 5; independence in, 6
Chad: joins Federation, 1; becomes independent, 2; a Muslim rebellion in, 3; civil war in, 4; massacre of Muslims in, 5
Chadwick, Sir John: and the H-Bomb, 1
Challenger (space shuttle): explodes, 1
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart: Hitler admires, 1; Hitler visits, 2
Chamberlain, Neville: becomes Prime Minister, 1; and the German annexation of the Sudetenland, 2; warns Germany, 3; and Allied aid to Finland, 4; and the Norwegian campaign, 5; replaced by Churchill, 6
Chamorro, Emiliano: seizes power, 1
Chanak: Mustafa Kemal challenges British at, 1
Changsha: Communists seize, 1
Chang Tso-lin, Marshal: rules in Peking, 1
Channel Ports: Germans fail to reach (1915), 1; Germans reach (1940), 2
Chaplin, Charlie: stars, 1; accused, 2
Charles, Emperor (of Austria-Hungary): seeks continuation of war (1916), 1; confronted by mutinies (1918), 2; recommends peace negotiations (1918), 3; seeks armistice, 4
Charles, Prince (of Wales): and a wedding guest, 1
'Charleston' (dance): takes America by storm, 1
Charter 1: in Czechoslovakia, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and Chernobyl, 7; and 'political pluralism', 8
Chatalja Lines: hold firm, 1
Chavez, César: leads Hispanics, 1
Chechenya: rebels seize (1920), 1; rebels in, crushed (1921), 2; anti-Russian rebellion in (1994–5), 3, 4, 5; Russian troops leave, 6; rebels continue their challenge, 7; bombed, 8
Cheju: prisoners of war at, 1
Chelmno: Jews murdered at, 1
Chernenko, Konstantin: rules Soviet Union, 1; dies, 2
Chernobyl: a nuclear reactor explosion in, 1, 2; demands for 'truthfulness' about, 3; full details of, to be published, 4
Chetwode, Field Marshal: and the execution of prisoners of war (by Franco), 1
Chevalier, Maurice: his debut, 1
Chiang Kai-shek: leads Kuomintang, 1; avoids foreign intervention, 2; enters Nanking, 3; extends authority, 4; challenged, 5; a 'running dog', 6; moves to Chungking, 7; holds elections, 8; appeals in Washington (through his wife), 9; loses power in mainland China, 10; and Taiwan, 11
Chicago: fire in, 1; a public health scandal in, 2; strikes in, 3; and organized crime, 4, 5; a nuclear experiment at, 6; a Habsburg meets a Cardinal in, 7; Kennedy telephones Martin Luther King's wife from, 8; civil rights demands in, 9; urban renewal in, 10; riots in, 11, 12
Childers, Erskine: his spy story, 1
Chile: earthquakes in, 1, 2; conflicting ideologies rule in, 3; Pinochet's regime in, 4; and a swap of dissidents, 5; political Patties banned in, 6; state of emergency in, 7
China: civil war in, introduction; Boxer rebellion in, 2; Great Power agreement with, 3; drought and famine in, 4; earthquakes in, 5, 6, 7; famine in, 8, 9, 10; floods in, 11, 12; and Russia, 13; revolution in, 14, 15; labourers from, in South Africa, 16; German concessions in, transferred to Japan, 17; emperor of, desposed (1922), 18; anarchy in (1923), 19; civil war in (1926), 20; anti-foreigner riots in (1927), 21; Muslim rebellion in (1928), 22; the Kuomintang-Communist struggle in, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31; Japanese attacks on, 32; and the Japanese conquest of Manchuria, 33; and the 'Long March', 34, 35; volunteers from, in Spain, 36; and the Sino-Japanese War, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41; and the Fulbright scholarships, 42; Communists come to power in, 43; and Tibet, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; and Vietnam, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54; and The Crucible, 55; and the Korean War, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63; Malayan Chinese deported to, 64; population growth in, 65, 66; Mao Tse-tung's rule in, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76; and the United States, 77; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 78; and the Ho Chi Minh Trail, 79; and the fall of Khrushchev, 80; explodes atom bombs, 81, 82, 83; and Ghana, 84; and the Central African Republic, 85; and the Red Guards, 86, 87; and the Cultural Revolution, 88, 89, 90; not a member of the United Nations, 91; and Pakistan, 92; and the United States, 93, 94; a major pollutant, 95; and the death of Mao Tse-tung, 96; supports ZANU in Rhodesia, 97; makes trade agreements with several Western nations, 98; internal reforms in, 99; religious persecution in, 100; appeals to United Nations for humanitarian aid, 101; smoking and lung cancer in, 102; student demonstrations in, 103; the Tiananmen Square massacre in, 104; regains Hong Kong, 105; deaths from lung cancer in, 106; the punishment of dissent in, 107, 108
China Democratic Party: pressure against, 1, 2
China News Agency: belittles Red Guards, 1
Chinese Christians: massacred, 1; persecuted, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Chinese civilians: their fate, in Singapore, 1; their fate, in North Borneo, 2; in the Seychelles, 3
Chinese Soviet Republic, proclaimed (1931), 1
Ching Peng: fights on, in Malaysia, 1
Chisholm, Shirley: enters Congress, the first black woman to do so, 1
cholera: among the 'great epidemic diseases', 1
cholesterol: and a Nobel Prize, 1
Chou En-lai: works with Kuomintang, 1; fights Kuomintang, 2; becomes Prime Minister, 3; and Vietnam, 4; and Communist rule in China, 5; and the United States, 6; dies, 7
Christian Falangists: in Lebanon, 1
Christian X, King (of Denmark): orders cease-fire, 1
Christian Institute (South Africa): banned, 1
Christmas Day: in 1901, in the Boer War, 1; in 1914 on the Western Front, 2; and a bombing halt in Vietnam, 3; bombing suspended on, 4; Vietnam invades Cambodia on, 5; the Palestinian flag flies over Bethlehem on, 6
Christmas Eve: Churchill reaches Athens on, 1; at the White House, 2; in Saigon, 3, 4
Christmas Island (Pacific): American nuclear tests at, 1
Chronicle of Current Events: seized and destroyed, 1; and a suicide, 2
Chropaczowa (Poland): industrial unrest at, 1
Chu Teh, Marshal: a Long March veteran, dies, 1
Chumbi Valley: occupied, 1
Chungking: linked to India by 'Burma Road', 1; bombed, 2; Mao Tse-tung negotiates at, 3
Chunuk Bair: the struggle for, 1, 2
Churchill, Winston: and 'the common man', introduction, 2; and a possible European war, 3; and the Dardanelles, 4; replaced, 5; and a way forward in Ireland, 6; and the Irish Treaty, 7; and the Chanak crisis, 8; and the rise of Hitler, 9, 10; denounces Munich Agreement, 11; becomes Prime Minister (10 May 1940), 12; 'we shall fight on', 13; and the attack on French ships at Oran, 14; and British bombing policy, 15, 16; and aid to Russia (1941), 17, 18; meets Roosevelt, 19, 20, 21; and the Warsaw Uprising, 22; flies to Athens, 23; at Potsdam, 24; seeks negotiations with Russia (after 1951), 25, 26; reflects on 'weapons of destruction', 27; his V-sign emulated in Poland (1983), 28
Chvalkovsky, Dr: hears Hitler's demands, 1
Cierna-nad-Tisou: Czechoslovak Communist leaders summoned to, 1
Cincinnati (Ohio): laser surgery in, 1
cinema: early efforts of, 1, 2, 3; and fires, 4; popularity of, 5; and cartoons, 6; and the New Deal, 7; nourishes, 8; and McCarthyism, 9; a film writer for, imprisoned, 10
Ciskei (South Africa): violence in, 1
Civic Forum: established, in Czechoslovakia, 1
Civitavecchia: Fascist militiamen at, 1
Clark, Colonel Howard: and VE-Day (1945), 1
Clark, First Lieutenant William A.: killed in action, 1
Clemenceau, Georges: 'nothing but war', 1; and the German armistice, 2
Clementis, Dr Vladimir: and the Marshall Plan, 1; forced to resign, 2
Clemo, George: his research into cancer, 1
Cleveland (Ohio): and heart bypass surgery, 1
Clinton, Hillary: and health care, 1; investigated, 2
Clinton, President William J. ('Bill'): announces end of 'Star Wars' era, 1; promises 'American leadership' in the world, 2; and Somalia, 3; and the Middle East, 4, 5, 6; and social reform, 7, 8; visits Kiev, 9; and Bosnia, 10; and nuclear disarmament, 11, 12; inaugurated for a second term, 13; allegations against, 14; meets Yeltsin, 15; and anti-personnel mines, 16; and the 'enlargement' of NATO, 17; and Northern Ireland, 18; and China, 19, 20; and Kosovo, 21, 22; impeached, 23; and Russia, 24; and NATO's war against Serbia, 25, 26
Club of Committed Non-Party People: formed in Prague (1968), 1; closed down, 2
Coca-Cola: abandons cocaine, 1
Cold War: and Greece, 1; and the Truman Doctrine, 2, 3; and Hungary, 4; and the Marshall Plan, 5; and North and South Korea, 6; and Berlin, 7, 8; and NATO, 9; and nuclear proliferation, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15; and the Warsaw Pact, 16; and 'Defence Highways', 17; and the Eisenhower-Khrushchev declaration, 18; and the U-2 spy plane, 19; and a shoe-banging incident, 20; and the space race, 21, 22; and the Cuban missile crisis, 23; and the 'hot line', 24; and Kennedy's visit to Berlin, 25; and Kennedy's last speech, 26; in the Brezhnev-Johnson era, 27; in the Brezhnev-Nixon era, 28; in the Brezhnev-Ford era, 29; in the Brezhnev-Carter era, 30; and a rival 'grim' division, 31; and 'Star Wars', 32; ends, 33, 34; a satellite defence system for, inaugurated, and then cancelled, 35; followed by 'new responsibilities', 36, 37
collectivization: in the Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; in Roumania, 8; in Czechoslovakia, 9, 10, 11, 12; in Hungary, 13; in Poland, 14, 15; in China, 16
Collins, Michael: negotiates for Southern Ireland, 1; becomes Prime Minister, 2; assassinated, 3
Cologne: British troops evacuate (1926), 1; a thousand British bombers attack (1942), 2; a final bombing attack on (1945), 3
Colombia: and the United States, 1, 2; death squads in, 3
Colombo (Sri Lanka): acts of terror in, 1
Colorado: and votes for women, 1
Colorado River: a dam on, 1
Cominform (Communist Information): successor to the Comintern, 1
Comintern (Communist International): Trotsky expelled from, 1; Bukharin expelled from, 2; its post-1945 incarnation, 3
Commission on Race Equality: established in Britain (1976), 1
Committee for the Defence of Unjustly Persecuted Citizens: established, in Czechoslovakia, 1
Committees of Public Safety (Algeria): 1
Common Market: established (1957), 1
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): established, 1; agrees to withdraw troops from Baltic States, 2; and the Barcelona Olympics, 3
communication satellites: put into orbit, 1; and telephone and television transmissions, 2
Communist Youth League (China): and the Great Leap Forward, 1
Compact Discs (CDs): go on sale for first time, 1
Compiègne Forest: armistice negotiations at, 1, 2
computers: marketed, 1; proliferate, 2; and personal wealth, 3; and a chess match, 4; and a trial in China, 5; and terrorism, 6
'concentration camps': in South Africa, 1; in German South-West Africa, 2; in Hitler's Germany, 3, 4, 5, 6; during the Second World War, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; reached by the Allies, 19, 20, 21
Concorde: takes to the air, 1
Confederation of Independent Poland: a new political Party, established (1979), 1
confidence and security building measures (CSBMs): and the Helsinki Agreement, 1
Confucianism: and Mao Tse-tung, 1
Congo (Brazzaville): Franco-German agreement on, 1; joins Federation, 2; becomes independent, 3; civil unrest in, 4
Congo (Léopoldville): power struggle in, after independence, 1; famine in, 2; Christians murdered in, 3; for subsequent index entries see Zaire
Conquest, Robert: estimates human cost of Soviet tyranny, 1
Conrad, Joseph: protests, 1
Constantinople: pressure on, 1; a threat to, 2; call for a parliament in, 3; parliament opened in, 4; counter-revolution in, 5; to be threatened, 6; a Russian war aim, 7; Turkish government in, 8; the Caliph in, 9; government in, reviled by Mustafa Kemal, 10; and negotiations with Kemal, 11; Kemal approaches, 12; Sultan forced to leave, 13; Soviet propaganda in, 14; for subsequent index entries see Istanbul
Consultative Council (1948): and European unity, 1
Contact Group (of six nations): and Kosovo, 1
Contra rebels (in Nicaragua): 1, 2, 3
convoy system: instituted (1917), 1
Cook, Robin: warns Milosevic, 1
Coolidge, President: intervenes in Nicaragua, 1
Co-operatives: and famine relief measures in Russia, 1
Copenhagen: Germans occupy, 1
Copland, Aaron: his first symphony, 1
Copts: in Egypt, 1, 2
Coral Sea: naval battle in, 1
Cordoba (Argentina): revolt in, 1
Corrigan, Mairead: creates a peace movement, 1
Cork: an assassination in, 1; an assassination near, 2
Cornwall: a signal sent from, 1
Corporate State: in Italy, 1
Corsica: and France's Algeria crisis, 1
Corvalan, Luis: allowed to leave Chile, 1
Cossacks: in action, 1, 2, 3, 4
Costa Rica: and a failed rebellion in Nicaragua, 1
Coty, Pierre: calls on de Gaulle to form government, 1
Council for Mutual Economic Understanding (COMECON): established, 1
Council of Europe: established, 1; West Germany admitted to, 2; sets up European Court of Human Rights, 3
Count of Monte Christo (film): and Hollywood, 1
Covenant of the League of Nations: high hopes for, 1; and disarmament, 2; and Abyssinia, 3; and collective security, 4
Covent Garden (London): the Bolshoi Ballet at, 1
Coventry: bombed, 1
Cracow: a forced labour camp near (1953), 1; a riot near (1960), 2; the Cardinal of, elected Pope (1978), 3
credit card: launched, 1
Crete: acquired by Greece, 1; battle for (1941), 2; the victor of, unable to carry out an order from Hitler (1945), 3
Crick, Francis: and DNA, 1
Crimea: Germany invades, 1; a Czech Communist leader summoned to, 2; Gorbachev in, 3
Croatia: independent, xvi; protests in, 1, 2, 3, 4; becomes part of Yugoslavia, 5; autonomies in, reduced, 6; declares independence, 7; fighting in, 8; independence of, recognized, 9; and Bosnia, 10, 11, 12
Croats: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 6, 7, 8; in Yugoslavia, 9, 10, 11; gain an independent State (1941), 12 and again (in 1991), 13
Crookes, William: and uranium, 1
'Cruise' missile: pilotless, 1; based in Britain, 2
Cuanhamas: punished, 1
Cuba: and the United States, 1; and the Olympics, 2 a failed coup in, 3; repression in, 4; revolutionaries land in, 5; Castro comes to power in, 6; wider revolutionary efforts by, 7; an invasion attempt on, at the Bay of Pigs, 8; and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 9; and the fall of Khrushchev, 10; and a Soviet-Cuban trade agreement, 11; and Chile, 12; and Angola, 13, 14; and Soviet military instructors, 15; soldiers from, fight in Grenada, 16; and Nicaragua, 17
Cuellar, Perez de: and the world's 5,000 millionth inhabitant, 1
Cult of Personality: and Stalin, 1; and Khrushchev, 2
Cultural Revolution (China): 1, 2, 3, 4; the four leaders of, arrested, 5; the aftermath of, 6, 7
Curie, Pierre and Marie: and radium, 1
Curtis, Gunner Robert; killed in Northern Ireland, 1
Curzon, Lord: and the Chanak crisis, 1
Cyprus: Jews detained on, 1, 2; seeks union with Greece, 3; and the campaign against British rule, 4; to become independent, 5; independence of, to be a model, 6; crisis on (1974), 7; Turkish invasion of, 8; Turkish rule in, 9; terrorist murders in, 10
Cyprus Radio: a mendacious broadcast over, 1
Cyrenaica: Italy conquers, 1
Czech Radio: observes a minute's silence, 1
Czechoslovak Army Corps: leader of (in 1945) becomes President (in 1968), 1
Czech Republic: established, 1; joins NATO, 2, 3; the world's 6,000 millionth person born in, 4
Czechoslovakia: in prospect, 1; created, 2, 3; intervenes in Russia, 4; sends famine relief to Russia, 5; and war debts to the United States, 6, 7; reform, and minorities, in, 8; signs Arbitration Treaty with Germany (1925), 9; rejects border changes, 10; loses claims against Austria, 11; warns Austria, 12; and the Little Entente, 13; its security in danger, 14; and Hitler, 15, 16, 17; and the Spanish Civil War, 18; and the Soviet Union, 19; Hitler's pressure on, and dismemberment of, 20, 21; forced labourers from, 22; German population removed from, 23; Communist rule in, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29; protests in, 30; forced labour in, 31; and the Marshall Plan, 32; and Vietnam, 33; joins Warsaw Pact, 34; demonstrations in, 35; hard labour and imprisonment in, 36, 37; continued Communist repression in, 38; and Warsaw Pact manoeuvres, 39, 40; mounting dissent in, 41, 42, 43, 44; revolution in (1968), 45; anti-Soviet demonstrations in (1969), 46; human rights activists in (1977), 47; arrests in (1978), 48; and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 49; continued dissent in, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54; and Poland, 55; and 'acid rain', 56; and Gorbachev's reforms, 57, 58; and Chernobyl, 59, 60; continued persecution in, 61; East Germans move through, 62; collapse of Communism in, 63, 64; Havel becomes President of, 65, 66; Soviet troops to be withdrawn from, 67
Czechs: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2, 3; seek statehood, 4; mutiny, 5; rise up against the Germans (1945), 6; move into Sudetenland, 7
Czernin, Count: suggests peacemaking (1915), 1
DDT (pesticide): banned, in Canada, 1
DNA: discovery of, 1
Dacca: and the flag of a new nation, 1; Indian troops advance to, 2
Dachau: a concentration camp at, 1, 2; the clothing of murdered Jews sent to, 3; reached by American forces, 4
Daghestan: fighting in (1919), 1; rebels seize (1920), 2; rebels in, crushed (1921), 3; Muslim separatists challenge Russia in (1999), 4
Dahomey: becomes independent, 1
Daily Mail: coins the word 'suffragette', 1; Hitler's letter in, 2
Dakar: first World Festival of Negro Arts held in (1966), 1
Daladier, Edouard: and the Munich Conference, 1; and Allied aid to Finland, 2
Dalai Lama: flees Tibet, 1
Dallas (Texas): Kennedy assassinated in, 1
Dalmatia: Yugoslavia acquires much of, 1
Dandaron, Bidya: imprisoned, 1
Danes: under German rule, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Daniel, Larisa: leads a protest in Red Square, 1
Daniel, Yuly: arrested, 1; tried and sentenced, 2; support for, in Poland, 3; support for, in Czechoslovakia, 4; works of, published clandestinely, 5
Dante's Inferno: an early feature film, 1
Danube River: control of, 1; Soviet tanks reach (1956), 2
Danzig: becomes a Free City, 1; railway line from Warsaw to, cut by Red Army, 2; and the League of Nations, 3; Nazi Party gain control of, 4, 5; anti-Jewish activities in, 6; Hitler demands, 7, 8; for subsequent index entries see Gdansk
Dardanelles: Italians bombard, 1; British and French bombard, 2; naval attack on, 3; German alarm concerning, 4; a Russian war aim, 5; Allies take possession of, 6; Allies retain, 7
Darmstadt: France occupies (1920), 1; jet airfield at, overrun (1945), 2
Darrow, Charles B.: invents 'Monopoly', 1
Darwin (Australia): bombed, 1
Darwin (Falklands): captured, 1
Davies, R. E. G.: and the impact of Lindbergh, 1
Dawes, General Charles G.: and reparations, 1
Dawson's Field (Jordan): a PLO hijacking at, 1
Day of Atonement: war on (1973), 1
Dayton (Ohio): a Bosnian agreement signed in, 1
Dean, John: and the Watergate scandal, 1
Debussy: 'bourgeois', 1
Declaration of Guam (1969): limits American overseas commitments, 1
Declaration on the Human Environment (1973): 1
Declaration of Principles (1993): between Israel and the PLO, 1
Decree of Peace (1917): Lenin issues, 1
Deep Blue (a computer): defeats a chess champion, 1
Defence Committee (1948): and European unity, 1
defoliation: in Vietnam, 1
De Gasperi, Alcide: heads Italian Republic, 1
De Gaulle, General: calls on Frenchmen to continue the fight, 1; and Algeria, 2, 3, 4, 5; becomes Prime Minister, 6; becomes President, 7; two murder attempts on, 8; and Vietnam, 9
De Klerk, Willem: and 'respect for human rights' in South Africa, 1; repeals repressive legislation, 2; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 3
Delhi: coronation Durbar in, 1; an assassination attempt in, 2; Hindu-Muslim violence in, 3; anti-Sikh violence in, 4; child labour in, 5
D'Elia, Kenneth: an anti-Vietnam War suicide, 1
Demi Hissar: an atrocity in, 1
Demilitarized Zone (DMZ): in Korea, 1; in Vietnam, 2, 3, 4
Demirel, Süleyman: comes to power, in Turkey, 1
Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire): ethnic violence in, 1
Deng Yiming: released from prison, after twenty-two years, 1
Denikin, General: leads anti-Bolshevik Russians, 1, 2
Denmark: appoints first woman Cabinet Minister, 1; rebuffed by China, 2; Jews find refuge in, 3; Hitler's second military conquest, 4, 5; resistance in, 6; an execution in, 7; Hitler determined not to lose, 8; and NATO, 9; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 10; and NATO's war against Serbia, 11
Depression, the: in the United States, 1, 2, 3, 4
Der Stürmer (magazine): anti-Semitism of, 1
Derbent: seized (1920), 1
Detroit: a Chinese dissident flies to, 1
Diana, Princess of Wales: and a wedding guest, 1; champions anti-personnel mine victims, 2; killed in a car crash, 3
Diego Garcia (India Ocean): leased to the United States, 1
Dien Bien Phu: to be defended, 1; overrun, 2
Dieppe: landing at (1942), 1
Dili (East Timor): fighting in, 1
Disney, Walt: his first film cartoon, 1
Disneyland: opens, 1
Displaced Persons (DPs): admitted to the United States, 1
Distant Early Warning Line (DEW Line): a radar defence line, begun, 1; completed, 2
District of Columbia: Nixon fails to win, 1
Djibouti: becomes independent, 1; troops from, sent to Somalia, 2
Djilas, Milovan: expelled, 1
Dodd, William: his pessimistic reflection, 1
Dodecanese Islands: acquired by Italy, 1; retained by Italy, 2
Doenitz, Admiral: succeeds Hitler as Chancellor, 1
Dolgoruki, Prince: shot without trial, 1
Dollfuss, Dr Engelbert: governs Austria, 1; assumes dictatorial powers, 2; uses artillery and tanks in Vienna, 3; assassinated, 4
Dominican Republic: Jews find refuge in, 1; rebels in, defeated, 2
Dominion Status (for India): 1
Donbass: recovery of, 1
Dornier, Claude: and German aircraft construction, 1
Dover: a submarine sunk off, 1
Dover Castle: a flight to, 1
Downing Street (London): enthusiastic crowds in, 1; the Sinn Fein leader invited to, 2
Downing Street Declaration (1993): seeks compromise in Northern Ireland, 1, 2
Dr Zhivago (Pasternak): published, and banned, 1, 2
Draga, Queen (of Serbia): murdered, 1
Dreadnought (battleship): launched, 1
Dresden: German leaders flee to, 1; Anglo-American bombing of, 2, 3; death toll of, 4; calls in, for democracy, 5
Drohobycz: a military objective, 1
Drumm, Maire: shot dead, in hospital, 1
Druze: and the Lebanese civil war, 1
Dubček, Alexander: supports 'nationalism', 1; comes to power amid revolution, 2; arrested, and summoned to Moscow, 3; replaced, 4; tries to answer criticisms, 5 Dublin: a demonstration in, 6; a Parliament in, 7; attempt to seize power in (1916), 8; a separate Parliament for, 9, 10; murders in, 11; a funeral in, 12; car bomb explosions in, 13; a British ambassador in, murdered, 14; and the dream of a united Ireland ruled from, 15; a protest march in, against the IRA, 16
Dubs, Adolph: kidnapped, and killed, 1
Dudayev, General: leads Chechen separatists, 1, 2, 3; killed, 4
Dugoute, General: and the French occupation of the Ruhr, 1
Dulles, John Foster: and the Cold War, 1, 2, 3
Duma: established (1905), 1; and the 1905 Revolution, 2, 3; and reform, 4; closed down, 5; reopened, amid hope of reform, 6; left-wing members of, arrested, 7; diminished powers of, 8; forms Provisional Government (1917), 9
Duncan, Patrick: protests, 1
Dunkirk: a German offensive towards (1918), 1; evacuation from (1940), 2; not to be repeated (1950), 3
Durban: strikes in, 1
Düsseldorf: bombed, 1
Dutch East Indies: rebellion in, 1, 2, 3; Japan overruns, 4; Dutch on, surrender, 5; fate of captured Allied troops, and civilians, on, 6: for subsequent index entries see Indonesia
Dyer, General: at Amritsar, 1
Dzerzhinsk (Russia): pollution in, 1
Dzhugashvili, Josef: see index entry Stalin, Josef
EOKA: fights the British in Cyprus, 1; has to give up desire for union with Greece, 2
Earth Summit (1992): and the environment, 1
East Bengal: strikes and riots in (1971), 1
East Berlin: East Germans reach the West through, 1; uprising in, 2; further exodus through, 3, 4; and the Berlin Wall, 5, 6; Gorbachev flies to, 7; pro-democracy rally in, 8; dissolution of Communism in, 9
East Germany: under Soviet control, 1, 2, 3, 4; its leader, at Stalin's seventieth birthday, 5; and Stalin's death, 6; joins Warsaw Pact, 7; continued flight from, 8, 9; and a Berlin crisis (1961), 10; Warsaw Pact manoeuvres in, 11; and the Berlin Wall, 12; continued Communist rule in, 13; and Czechoslovakia, 14, 15; and the future of Berlin, 16; and Zaire, 17; and Poland, 18; growing dissent in, 19, 20, 21; and 'acid rain', 22; and the mass movement to West Germany, 23; Communist government in, resigns, 24; dissolution of Communism in, 25; formally ceases to exist, 26
East Pakistan: cyclone and tidal wave in, 1; becomes independent, as Bangladesh, 2
East Prussia: Poles in, 1; Russians advance into (1914), 2; a former President of, leads right-wing putsch (1920), 3; and Hitler's pressure on Poland (1939), 4; Hitler's headquarters in, 5, 6, 7, 8; Russians advance into, 9, 10, 11; divided between the Soviet Union and Poland, 12; German population removed from, 13
East Timor: invaded by Indonesia, 1; the path to independence in, 2
Easter Uprising (Dublin, 1916): 1
Eastern Galicia: and the First World War, 1, 2, 3; acquired by Poland, 4; conciliation towards Ukrainians in, 5
Eastern Thrace: Turkish claim to, 1, 2; Turkish rule in, 3
Eban, Abba: and 'a dark page' in Jewish history, 1
Ebert, Friedrich: becomes Chancellor, 1; troops loyal to, defeat revolutionaries, 2; becomes President, 3; flees to Dresden, 4; dies, 5
Ebro River: battle at (1938), 1
Ecevit, Bülent: and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, 1; and unrest inside Turkey, 2
Ecuador: flooding in, 1
Ecumenical Council (Rome): Polish bishops refused permission to travel to, 1
Eden, Anthony: in action (1917), 1; and the Suez Crisis (1956), 2
Eder Dam: bombed, 1
Educational Courses Society: in Poland, a focus of dissent, 1
Edward VII, King: protests, 1; launches battleship, 2
Eger: Czechs to withdraw from, 1
Egypt: deaths from cholera in, 1; nationalism in, 2, 3; German concessions in, transferred to Britain, 4; independence granted to, 5; and Palestine, 6; and the Second World War, 7, 8, 9; and Israel, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; Palestinian Arab refugees in, 17; King Farouk overthrown in, 18; Neguib assumes dictatorial powers in, 19; Nasser comes to power in, 20; and the Suez Crisis, 21, 22; and the Soviet Union, 23; and the Six-Day War, 24; and the War of Attrition, 25; and the October War, 26; and Sadat's visit to Jerusalem, 27; makes peace with Israel, 28; embassy of, in Ankara, occupied by PLO, 29; an air rescue mission launched from, 30; and a hijacking, 31; and the Gulf War, 32, 33; United States aid to, 34; Islamic fundamentalism in, 35, 36
Eilat: and the Six-Day War, 1; and the War of Attrition, 2
Einstein, Albert: and the Hydrogen bomb, introduction, 2; in exile, 3
Eisenhower, General (later President) Dwight D.: and the Korean War, 1; and the Cold War, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; and Vietnam, 9; and Taiwan, 10; and the Suez Crisis, 11; and civil rights, 12; and nuclear tests, 13, 14; and the U-2 spy plane, 15
Eisner, Kurt: proclaims Socialist Republic, 1; assassinated, 2
El Al (Israel airlines): an act of terror against, 1
El Alamein, Battle of (1942): 1
El Salvador: guerrilla warfare in, 1
Elbe River: control of, 1; Russians not able to be halted at, 2; Russian and American troops meet at, 3
Elbruz Mountain (Caucasus): Swastika raised on, 1
electric iron: introduced, 1
Elisabethville (Congo): fighting in, 1
Elizabeth, Princess (later Queen Elizabeth II): a royal guest at wedding of, abdicates, 1; sees Bolshoi Ballet, as Queen, 2; sees first South African cricket team play in Britain for twenty-nine years, 3
e-mail: a revolutionary global communications method, 1; and a trial in China, 2; and an electronic magazine in China, 3
Emancipation Proclamation (1863): the hundredth anniversary of, 1
Ena, Queen (of Spain): an assassination attempt against, 1
Enabling Act (1930): and Germany's flight from democracy, 1, 2, 3; Hitler uses (1933), 4
Endurance (survey ship): to be scrapped, 1
English Channel: first flight across, 1; naval moves in, 2; a submarine sunk in (1912), 3; German offensive towards (1918), 4; Germans reach (1940), 5; and the Battle of Britain, 6; and Dieppe, 7; and the Cross-Channel landing, 8, 9, 10
Enigma: and Hitler's designs on Greece, the Balkans and Russia, 1; and Greece, 2
Eniwetok Atoll: and a Hydrogen bomb test, 1
Enola Gay (bomber): drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima, 1
Entebbe (Uganda): and a hijacking, 1
Entente Cordiale: signed (1904), 1
Enterprise (aircraft carrier, atomic-powered): launched, 1
environment: see index entry pollution and the environment
Equatorial Guinea (formerly Spanish Guinea): violent unrest in, 1; and human rights, 2
Erdemovic, Lance-Corporal: sentenced for war crimes, 1
Eritrea: Italy controls, 1; at war with Ethiopia, 2, 3, 4
Espiritu Santo: revolt on, 1
Essen: a violent incident in (1923), 1; bombed (1943), 2
Esterwegen: concentration camp at, 1, 2
Estonia: nationalism in, 1, 2; repression in, 3; independent, 4; liberated, 5; and war debts to the United States, 6, 7; Communist Party suppressed in, 8; Hitler gives Stalin control of, 9, 10; Soviet rule in (after 1945), 11; hostility to Moscow in, 12, 13, 14; Communism crumbles in, 15; declares independence, 16; votes to remain outside Soviet Union, 17; and a coup in Moscow, 18; signs treaty with Russian Federation, 19
Ethiopia: famine in, 1, 2, 3; the elimination of smallpox in, 4, 5; at war with Somalia, 6; civil war in, 7, 8; refugees from, 9; death marches in, 10; Jews from, reach Israel, 11; at war with Eritrea, 12, 13, 14
Euphrates River: and the Iran-Iraq war, 1, 2
European Atomic Energy Authority (Euratom): established (1957), 1
European Coal and Steel Community: establishes a 'single market', 1
European Court of Human Rights: and Northern Ireland, 1
European Court of Justice: established (1957), 1
European Defence Community (EDC): formed, 1
European Economic Community (EEC): established (1957), 1; and China, 2; and Guinea and Kenya, 3; and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 543; and the Iranian hostage crisis, 4; and the Falklands War, 5, 6; and Chernobyl, 7; and a rocket failure, 8; becomes European Union, 9; for subsequent index entries see European Union
European Human Rights Commission: and Turkey, 1
European Parliament: and Angola, 1
European Payments Union (1950): and the path to European Unity, 1
European Union: established, 1; protests, 2; mediates, 3; recognizes independence of Slovenia and Croatia, 4; airlifts food to former Soviet Republics, 5; aids Palestinian Authority, 6; and Kosovo, 7
European unity: and the Iron Curtain, 1; and iron and steel, 2; and the European Defence Community, 3; and a 'single market', 4; and the European Economic Community, 5; and the European Union, 6
FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigations): and Senator Joseph McCarthy, 1, 2; and Watergate, 3
FLN (Front de la Liberation Nationale): at war with France, in Morocco, 1; challenges French rule, in Algeria, 2
FRELIMO (Mozambique guerrilla movement): enters government, 1; challenged, 2
Facta, Luigi: unable to stop Mussolini, 1
Fahd, King (of Saudi Arabia): his wealth, 1
Fair Deal (1949): and Truman, 1
Falaise (Normandy): battle for, 1
Falange (Spain): extra-parliamentary activity of, 1
Falangists (Lebanon): in Beirut, 1, 2
Falkenhayn, General: and Verdun, 1; replaced, 2
Falklands War (1982): between Argentina and Britain, 1; veterans of, fight in Gulf War, 2
family planning: in India, 1
Fang Jue: imprisoned, 1
'Farewell to arms': Rabin's appeal to the Palestinians, 1
Farouk, King (of Egypt): overthrown, 1
Farrar-Hockley, Captain Anthony: in Korea, 1
Fascist Grand Council: incorporated into the Italian constitution, 1; dismisses Mussolini, 2
Fascist Party: rule of, in Italy, 1, 2, 3; Secretary of, executed, 4
Fascisti: in Italy, 1; and Mussolini's 'March on Rome', 2
Fatah ('victory'): members of, in prison in Israel, 1
Faubus, Orval: upholds segregation, 1, 2
Faulhaber, Cardinal von: speaks against Nazi racial policies, 1
Faure, Edgar: and Algeria, 1
Favaloro, René: pioneers heart bypass surgery, 1
fax machines: and thought control, 1, 2; 'This is how Iran eventually will change', 3
Federal Inter-Racial Commission: established in the United States (1921), 1
Federal Republic of Germany: see index entry West Germany
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: to be established, 1
Fermi, Enrico: and the evolution of the atomic bomb, 1
Fermoy: aftermath of a shooting at, 1
Fernie (British Columbia): destroyed by fire, 1
Fertig, Wendell: organizes resistance, 1
Fez (Morocco): defended, 1
Fiddler on the Roof (musical): its premiere, 1
Fighting League: active in Munich (1923), 1; and Hitler's attempt to seize power in Munich, 2
Filipinos: in action against the Japanese, and in captivity, 1; resistance by, 2, 3
'Final Solution': and the fate of the Jews, 1, 2
Finland: and the Russian Empire, 1, 2, 3; and the Russian Revolution (of 1905), 4; Duma moves to, 5; independent, 6; Russia accepts loss of, 7; intervenes in Russia, 8; invaded by the Soviet Union, 9, 10; accedes to Soviet demands, 11; and the Marshall Plan, 12; and a post-war purge trial, 13; and Chernobyl, 14
First Balkan War (1912): 1, 2
First World War: predominantly European, introduction; aftermath of, introduction; and a traitor, shot, 2; and the saga of a fountain pen, 3; origins of, 4; fought, 5; Indian Muslims in, 6; a veteran of, leads Communist uprising in Germany, 7; two hated weapons of, abolished, 8; and war debts to the United States, 9; a weapon of, used by gangsters, 10; war memorials to, 11, 12; Jewish war dead of, in Germany, 13; veterans of, march in Washington, 14; its 'bitter cup' recalled, 15; United States war dead in, and a comparison with the Korean War, 16; indebtedness after, and a post-1945 initiative, 17; the worst influenza epidemic since the end of, 18; Vietnam War longer than (for the United States), 19 Fischer, Abram: imprisoned, 20
Fisher, H. A. L.: and an 'insane racialism', introduction
Flanders: German and British war pledges concerning, 1
Flanders coast: a German war aim (1916), 1
Flensburg: Hitler's successor as Chancellor at, 1
flight: its infancy, 1, 2, 3; pioneers of, 4, 5; and photographs of a natural disaster, 6; and the return of Kennedy to Washington after his assassination, 7; and the television film of the Tokyo Olympics, 8; and Concorde, 9; and the Entebbe hijacking, 10; and the shooting down of an Air Rhodesia civilian airliner, 11; and the suspending of Aeroflot and Lot flights to the United States, 12; and the first regular 'jumbo' jet service, 13; and the shooting down of a South Korean civilian airliner, 14; and an agreement on air safety, 15; and a hijacking to Beirut, 16; and an act of terror in Sri Lanka, 17; and the Lockerbie bombing, 18; see also index entries for air power and aerial bombardment and jet aircraft
Florence: Mussolini praises war in, 1
Florida: and a wildlife refuge, 1; Nixon and Kennedy campaigning in, 2; Kennedy visits, on way to Texas, 3; Chinese nuclear fall-out reaches, 4
Flossenbürg (concentration camp): reached by American forces, 1, 2
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand: given supreme command, 1; launches counter-attack, 2; and the German armistice, 3; a staff officer of, sent to help Poles, 4
Ford, President Gerald: and the Soviet Union, 1, 2; and Vietnam, 3; and Cambodia, 4; replaced by Jimmy Carter, 5
Ford, Henry: his 'Model T', 1; sponsors folk dancing, 2
Foreman, Carl: and McCarthyism, 1
Forest Service (USA): established, 1
Formosa: see index entry Taiwan
Forrestal (aircraft carrier): launched, 1
Fort Oglethorpe (Georgia): a sad victory in, 1
Fort Worth (Texas): Kennedy in, on way to Dallas, 1
Fourteen Points: a 'peace programme' (1918), 1
'Foxbat' (Soviet fighter plane): lands in Japan, 1
Fractional Orbital Bombardment Scheme (FOBS): and anti-missile defence, 1
France, Anatole: critical of Soviet 'show trials', 1
France: and Vietnam, introduction; and Algeria, introduction; and China, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and the Olympic Games, 7; and Alsace-Lorraine, 8, 9, 10; and international diplomacy, 11, 12, 13, 14; and Morocco, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20; 'crusade of beggars' in, 21; and the path to war (1909–14), 22, 23, 24; social unrest in, 25; and aviation, 26; and the United States, 27, 28, 29; and the first five months of war (in 1914), 30; and the Dardanelles, 31, 32; and Salonika, 33; evacuates Gallipoli, 34; defends Verdun, 35, 36, 37; First World War mutinies in, 38; and the last year of war (1918), 39, 40, 41, 42; acquires Mandates (1919), 43; and the Rhineland, 44; intervenes in Russia, 45; and disarmament, 46; and the Supreme Allied Council, 47; occupies part of Ruhr (1920), 48; and reparations, 49, 50; supports Poland (1920), 51; and the future of Turkey, 52; and naval disarmament, 53; challenged by Mustafa Kemal, 54, 55, 56; occupies the Ruhr, 57, 58, 59; recognizes Soviet Union, 60; seeks mediation against Soviet repression, 61; and the Locarno Treaties, 62, 63; Lindbergh's flight to, 64; fortifies its frontier with Italy, 65; fortifies its frontier with Germany, 66; warns Austria, 67; withdraws funds from Austria, 68; and Hitler's Germany, 69, 70, 71; internal strife in, 72; and the Soviet Union, 73; and the Saar, 74; its security, at risk, 75; Popular Front in, 76, 77; and German rearmament, 78; and the Spanish Civil War, 79; and Madagascar, 80; and the German annexation of Czechoslovakia, 81; Roosevelt's question to Hitler about, 82; declares war on Germany, 83; planned German invasion of, 84; and the Allied landings in Norway, 85, 86; Germany invades, 87; Germany conquers, 88; reprisals in, 89; and Allied bombing, 90, 91; resistance in, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96; liberation of, 97, 98; and Indochina, 99; and Vietnam, 100, 101, 102, 103; post-war political conflicts in, 104; and post-1945 Germany, 105, 106; and the Marshall Plan, 107; and European unity, 108, 109; and NATO, 110; and Communist China, 111; and nuclear disarmament, 112; and the European Defence Community, 113; draws closer to West Germany, 114; removes tariffs 115; and a 'single market', 116; and Algeria, 117, 118, 119, 120; and Austria, 121; and the Suez Crisis, 122, 123, 124; and the Common Market, 125; Fifth Republic in, established, 126, 127; African empire of, in transition, 128, 129, 130, 131; Nureyev seeks asylum in, 132; and the Berlin crisis (of 1961), 133; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 134; and the Straits of Tiran, 135; tests Hydrogen bomb, 136; tests Concorde, 137; Somalia appeals to, 138; and the independence of Djibouti, 139; and Guinea, 140; takes in Boat People, 141; and Chad, 142; takes advantage of a boycott, 143; supplies uranium to Iraq, 144, 145; peacekeepers from, in Lebanon, 146; bombs Baalbek, 147; a priest from, killed in Chile, 148; and arms sales, 149; a relief agency from, in Ethiopia, 150; continued nuclear weapons tests by, 151; and Chernobyl, 152; and Iraq, 153; and the Gulf War, 154; and Somalia, 155; and Bosnia, 156, 157; surveyors from, killed in Algeria, 158; and reunited Germany, 159; and Rwanda, 160; agrees to give up nuclear tests, 161; a vigil in, after Algerian killings, 162; a judge from, sentences a Bosnian war criminal, 163; manufactures landmines, 164; and Kosovo, 165, 166; and NATO's war against Serbia, 167
Franco, Francisco; in Spanish Morocco, 1, 2, 3; directs operations against Asturias, 4; heads insurgent government, 5; German help for, 6; Italian help for, 7; executes prisoners of war, 8; wins control of all Spain, 9; gives refuge to Peron, 10; his last year, and death, 11
Franconia: villages in, 'free of Jews', 1
Frank, Anne: betrayed, with her family, 1
Frankfurt-on-Main: France occupies (1920), 1; violence in (1923), 2; jet airport at, overrun (1945), 3; Dean Rusk spells out American policy in (1963), 4
Frankische Tageszeitung: and Franconia to be 'rid of Jews', 1
Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke: his talk with the Kaiser, 1; assassinated, 2; aftermath of assassination of, 3; and an assassination in 1934, 4
Franz-Joseph, Emperor: his multi-national empire, 1, 2, 3; and Macedonia, 4; and Magyar ascendancy, 5; dies, 6
Free French Forces: liberate Paris, 1
Free University (Belgrade): teaches freedom of speech, 1
French Alps: reprisals in, 1
French Foreign Legion: in Norway, 1
French Guiana: deportations to, 1
French Indo-China (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos): conflict in, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
French Morocco: 1, 2, 3, 4; Franco-German agreement on, 5; unrest in, 6, 7, 8; German designs on, 9; German concessions in, transferred to France, 10; 'pacification' in, 11; troops from, in Vietnam, 12; anti-French struggle in, 13; achieves independence, 14; for subsequent index entries see Morocco
French North Africa: American troops land in, 1; Churchill and Roosevelt meet in, 2
French Somaliland: to be independent, 1
French West Africa: revolt in, 1; federation formed in, 2
Friedrichshaven: airship service to, 1
'friendly fire': in the Gulf War, 1
Friends of the Earth: founded, 1
Frenz, Bishop Helmut: protests, in Chile, 1
Fuchs, Klaus: betrays atom secrets, 1
Fukuryu Maru (fishing vessels): and a Hydrogen bomb test, 1
Fulbright, Senator: his scholarships, 1; his criticism of the Vietnam War, 2, 3
Furundzija, Anto: sentenced for war crimes, 1
Gabai, Ilya: commits suicide, 1
Gabon: joins Federation, 1
Gagarin, Major: in orbit, 1
Gaidar, Yegor: Yeltsin's ally, 1
Galicia: unrest in, 1
Galilee, Sea of: the first kibbutz near, 1
Gallagher, John: killed while running for sanctuary, 1
Gallipoli: military struggle for (1915), 1, 2, 3; Turkish threat to (1922), 4; a veteran of, negotiates with Britain, 5
Gallup (New Mexico): a Korean War hero from, 1
Gallup Polls: and civil rights, 1
Galtieri, General: and the Falklands War, 1; resigns, 2
Gambia: becomes independent, 1; rebellion in, 2
Gandhi, Indira: declares State of Emergency, 1; suspends liberties, 2; restores liberties, 3; alienates the Sikhs, 4; assassinated, 5 Gandhi, M. K.: and the Indians of South Africa, 6, 7, 8, 9; in India, 10, 11; imprisoned, 12; negotiates with Lord Irwin, 13, 14; leads salt march, 15; imprisoned, 16, 17; released, 18; at London Round Table Conference, 19; arrested, 20; and civil disobedience, 21, 22; retires, to work for Untouchables, 23; an assassination attempt on, 24; seeks united India, 25, 26; assassinated, 27; Martin Luther King inspired by, 28; and Nelson Mandela, 29
Gandhi, Rajiv: succeeds his mother as Prime Minister, 1; and Sri Lanka, 2, 3, 4, 5; assassinated, 6
Gandhi, Sanjay: his social reform plan for India, 1
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): 1
Ganges Valley: flooding in, 1
Gapon, Father: leads demonstration, 1
Garbo, Greta: stars, 1
Gary (Indiana): and steel, 1
gas: used in First World War, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; denounced, 10; Hitler writes of a use for, 11; Germans manufacture secretly (from 1926), 12; sent to China (1927), 13; used against Abyssinia (1936), 14; at Auschwitz (1940–44), 15, 16; at Chelmno (1941–2), 17; Hitler's 'more humane means', 18; and two industrial disasters (1984), 19; outlawed in war (1989), 20; feared, in the Gulf War, 21
Gates, Bill: his wealth, 1
Gaza Strip: occupied by Israel, 1; and the Suez Crisis, 2; and the Six-Day War, 3, 4; and the future of the Palestinians, 5, 6, 7; Israeli settlements in, 8, 9, 10; an assassination in, 11; and Peace Now, 12; and the Intifada, 13; part of Palestinian Authority, 14; Islamic fundamentalists in, 15; Palestinian self-rule in, 16, 17, 18
Gdansk (earlier, Danzig): Polish anti-Soviet demonstrations in, 1; strikes in, 2; Communist-Solidarity negotiations in, 3; Solidarity congress in, 4
Geldof, Bob: and Live Aid, 1
General Belgrano (Argentine cruiser): sunk, 1
Geneva: an exile in, becomes king, 1; Egyptian nationalists meet in, 2; League Assembly meets in, 3, 4; World Disarmament Conference in, 5; Italian-Abyssinian talks in, 6; Soviet Union expelled from League of Nations in, 7; Vietnam talks in, 8; nuclear testing negotiations in, 9, 10; disarmament negotiations in, 11, 12, 13; Reagan and Gorbachev meet in, 14, 15; an important step towards detente announced in, 16; a territorial settlement for Bosnia worked out in, 17; a culmination of nuclear disarmament talks in, 18
Geneva Protocol (1924): seeks abolition of war, 1
George V, King-Emperor: crowned, 1; in India, 2; signs Government of India Act, 3
George Medal: and an anti-personnel mine victim, 1
George Washington (nuclear-powered submarine): test fires a Polaris missile, 1
Georgia (Caucasus): discontent in, 1; independent, 2; annexed by the Soviet Union, 3; revolt in, suppressed, 4; Helsinki Monitors in, 5; nationalist unrest in, 6, 7, 8; declares independence, 9; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 10; Abkhazians in, revolt, 11
Georgia (United States): desegregation in, 1; 'freedom rides' in, 2; Martin Luther King arrested in, 3; violence in, 4; a Governor of, becomes President, 5
germ warfare: an accusation of, 1
German Catholic Church: Hitler's bargain with, 1; persecution of, 2, 3
German Communist Republic: declared, 1
German Democratic Republic: see index entry East Germany German Federal Republic: see index entry West Germany
German South-West Africa: unrest in, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
German Soviet Republic: proclaimed, 1, 2
'Germandom': and 'Slavdom', 1
Germans: in Austria-Hungary, 1; in Czechoslovakia, 2
Germany: and China, 1, 2; imperial conflicts of, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and the Olympic Games, 8; emigrants from, their achievements, 9; and the Zeppelin, 10; nationalist discontents in, 11, 12, 13; socialist patriotism in, 14; social unrest in (pre-1914), 15; and Haiti, 16; and the Poles, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21; and Britain, 22, 23; and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 24; and Austria-Hungary (and the road to war, 1908–14), 25, 26, 27; and France, 28, 29; and women's rights, 30; and Anglo-German naval rivalry, 31, 32; and the United States, 33; and the coming of war in 1914, 34; and the first five months of war, 35; in 1915, 36; and gas warfare, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44; submarine sinkings by, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; and the battles of 1916, 50, 51, 52; and Verdun, 53, 54; and the Easter Uprising in Dublin 55, and Belgium, 56; United States declares war on (6 April 1917), 57; and the battles of 1917, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63; and the battles of 1918, 64, 65; and the Bolsheviks, 66; signs armistice, 67; loses territory under Paris Peace Conference, 68; and the Treaty of Versailles, 69; forbidden to unite with Austria, 70; unrest in (1920), 71; a Communist uprising in (1921), 72; Soviet trade agreement with (1921), 73; sends help to famine regions of Russia, 74; and reparations, 75, 76; a Jew assassinated in (1922), 77; and the French occupation of the Ruhr, 78; extremism in, gives Hitler his opportunity, 79; and the Soviet Union (1924–39), 80, 81; and Czechoslovakia, 82, 83; and the Locarno Treaties, 84, 85; and the Arbitration Treaties, 86; Hitler rebuilds his Party and his power in, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94; Hitler comes to power in, 95; and Mussolini's Italy, 96; obtains secret facilities for rearmament inside Soviet Union, 97, 98; aims to end Versailles restrictions, 99; banking crisis in, 100; the early years of Hitler's rule in, 101, 102; and Hitler's foreign policy, 103, 104, 105, 106; refugees from, 107, 108, 109, 110; and the German Catholic Church, 111, 112, 113, anti-Jewish policies in (1933–9), 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122; and the Saar, 123; compulsory military service in (1935), 124; and the Spanish War, 125, 126, 127; motor roads in, 128; increased rearmament in (from 1936), 129; and Austria, 130; and the Sudetenland, 131; and Bohemia and Moravia, 132; and Memel, 133; and Poland, 134, 135; and the conquest of Poland, 136; conquers Denmark, 137; conquers Holland and Belgium, 138; conquers Norway, 139; conquers France, 140; conquers Luxembourg, 141; and the Battle of Britain, 142; and the invasion of Yugoslavia, 143, 144; and the invasion of Greece, 145; occupies Crete, 146; and the invasion of the Soviet Union, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153; British bombing of, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163; American bombing of, 164, 165; and a renewed offensive against Russia, 166; and the Normandy Landings, 167, 168; Allies cross into, 169; defeat of, 170; to be divided into Allied zones of occupation, 171; and the United Nations, 172; and reparations (after 1945), 173; post-war divisions in, 174, 175; and the Berlin Blockade, 176; re-united, 177; buys American arms, 178; all foreign troops leave, 179; and Kosovo, 180, 181; and NATO's war against Serbia, 182, 183, 184; moves capital from Bonn to Berlin, 185
Gershwin, George: and Porgy and Bess, 1
Gestapo: taken over by Nazi Party, 1; and the Bomb Plot against Hitler, 2; the Frank family betrayed to, 3; reprisals by, in Lyon, 4
Ghadrites: denounced by Gandhi, 1
Ghana (formerly Gold Coast): an All-African conference in, 1; troops from, in the Congo, 2; one-Parry elections in, 3; a military coup in, 4; a further coup in, 5; a third coup in, 6; a United Nations Secretary General born in, 7
Giap, General: leads struggle against France, 1, 2
Gide, André: and the coming of war in 1914, 1
Giesl, Count: recalled from Belgrade, 1, 2
Gihon (Spain): miners seize, 1
Gila Wilderness (New Mexico): protected, 1
Gilbert, Martin: 'I happened to be reading…', 1
Gilbert, Parker: and German reparations, 1
Gillette, K. C.: his safety razor, 1
Ginzburg, Alexander: arrested, 1
Giselle (ballet): 'a most beautiful performance' in, 1
Gizenga, Antoine: leads breakaway Congo province, 1
Glasgow: a Peace Conference in, 1; a warning in, about a European war, 2
'glasnost' (openness): in the Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3; Czechoslovakia wary of, 4; Roumania rejects, 5; a Bulgarian club for, closed down, 6; promised, in East Germany, 7; overtaken, 8
Glosters (Gloucestershire Regiment): in Korea, 1
Gneisenau (battle-cruiser): launched, 1
Goebbels, Dr Joseph: and the Nazi Party's road to power, 1, 2; and pan-Germanism, 3; and food shortages, 4; and the British bombing of Germany, 5; and German losses in Russia, 6; and reprisals in Poland, 7; and the Hitler bomb plot, 8; and the death of Roosevelt, 9; dies, with his wife and children, 10
Goering, Hermann: in action (1917), 1; denounces Czechs, 'Moscow' and 'the Jew devil', 2; cheats the hangman, 321; his Aviation Ministry becomes the Finance Ministry (1999), 3
Goggs, Tim: an anti-personnel mine victim, 1
Golan Heights: Syria driven from, 1; and the October War, 2; and Israel's negotiations with Syria, 3
gold: in Taiwan, 1; in Czechoslovakia, 2
Gold Coast: unrest in, 1; becomes independent, as Ghana, 2; for subsequent index entries see Ghana
Golden Temple (Amritsar): an assault on, 1
Goldwater, Senator: his failed Presidential challenge, 1
Gömbös, Gyorgy: his Fascism rewarded, 1
Gomel: pogrom in, 1
Gomulka, Wladyslaw: imprisoned (1936), 1; expelled (1949), 2; guides Poland (1956), 3, 4; abandons 'ideological conformity' (1959), 5; strengthens links with Soviet Union, 6
Goncz, Arpad: a former prisoner, becomes President, 1; withdraws Hungary from Warsaw Pact, 2
Good Friday Agreement (1998): and Northern Ireland, 1
Goose Green (Falklands): captured, 1
Gorazde (Bosnia): bombarded, 1; Bosnian Serbs withdraw from, 2
Gorbachev, Mikhail: a reformer, 1; comes to power in the Soviet Union, 2; his early reforms, 3; and Czechoslovakia, 4, 5; and nuclear disarmament, 6, 7, 8; and Afghanistan, 9, 10, 11; and Chernobyl, 12, 13; and the release of dissidents, 14; continued reforms of, 15, 16, 17, 18; meets Reagan, 19; meets Bush, 20, 21, 22; and the Armenian earthquake, 23; and Eastern Europe, 24, 25, 26; and Lithuania, 27, 28; and the Baltic Republics, 29, 30; and East Germany, 31; seeks to keep one-Party system, 32, 33; his candidate, defeated by Yeltsin, 34; wins Nobel Prize, 35; plotted against, 36; a coup against, fails, 37; disbands Communist Party Central Committee, 38; resigns, 39
Gore, Al: a future Vice-President, 1
Gore, Albert: critical of Vietnam War, 1
Gorky: Sakharov exiled to, 1, 2
Gots, Abram: victim of a 'show trial', 1
Gotsinskii, Imam: revolts against Communist rule, 1; defeated, and shot, 2
Gottwald, Klement: and a breach with the United States, 1; and collectivization, 2
Government of India Act (1935): 1
Graf Spee (pocket battleship): hunted down, 1
Grameen Bank: and village recovery, 1
Grand Hotel (Brighton): an IRA bomb at, 1
Granma (merchant ship): lands revolutionaries, 1
Great Lakes: Chinese nuclear fall-out reaches, 1
Great Leap Forward: in China, 1, 2
Great Society: President Johnson launches, 1; and the Vietnam War, 2
Great Train Robbery: film premiere, 1
Great Wall of China: Japanese reach, 1
Greece: and Turkey, 1; and the First Balkan War, 2, 3; and the Second Balkan War, 4; and the First World War, 5; acquires Thrace, 6; intervenes in Russia, 7; and the Treaty of Sèvres, 8; authorized to challenge Mustafa Kemal, 9; loses western Anatolia, 10, 11; in occupation of Eastern Thrace, 12; and war debts to the United States, 13; and Mussolini's Italy, 14; Roosevelt's question to Hitler about, 15; checks Italian invasion, 16; Hitler's plans to invade, 17; Germany overruns, 18; reprisals in, 19, 20, 21; political compromise in, 22; and the Fulbright scholarships, 23; American support for (post-1947), 24; and Cyprus, 25, 26, 27, 28; receives nuclear weapons technology, 29; NATO aids, 30; and Chernobyl, 31; joins NATO war against Serbia, 32
Greeks: in Macedonia, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; in Turkey, 6
Green Army: opposes Communism (1920), 1
Greenland: and a radar defence chain, 1; a nuclear-powered submarine reaches, 2
Greenpeace: challenges a nuclear test, 1
Grenada: a United States invasion of, 1
Grew, Joseph: describes bombing of Shanghai, 1
Grey, Sir Edward: and the coming of war in 1914, 1, 2
Griffith, Arthur: and Irish nationalism, 1
Grissom, Virgil: manoeuvres in space, 1
Groener, General: builds up German army (1928), 1
Grösz, Archbishop: imprisoned, 1
Group of Seven (G7): seeks to ameliorate Third World indebtedness, 1
Grozny: Germans fail to capture, 1; Russian warplanes bomb, 2; Russians shell, 3; Russians overrun, 4; fighting near, 5; Chechens overrun, 6; oil refineries in, set on fire, 7 Grüber, Heinrich: and the fate of the Jews at Auschwitz, 8
Gruening, Senator: opposes Vietnam War, 1
Grynszpan, Herschel: assassinates a German diplomat, 1
Grynszpan, Sendel: expelled from Germany, 1
Guadalcanal (Pacific): Americans land on (1942), 1; Japanese defeated on, 2
Guam (Pacific): overrun by Japan, 1; retaken by the Americans, 2; Johnson meets Air Vice-Marshal Ky on, 3; Nixon issues foreign policy declaration on, 4
Guantanamo (Cuba); American manoeuvres at, 1
Guards Chapel (London): hit by a flying bomb, 1
Guatemala: revolt in, 1; earthquake in, 2; civil war in, ends, 3
Guernica (Spain): bombed, 1; serves as a precedent, 2
Guernica (painting): Picasso's protest, 1
Guevara, Ernesto (Che): lands in Cuba, 1; his hopes for a wider revolution, 2
Guildford: two bombs detonated in, 1
Guinea: improves relations with France, 1; the death of a dictator in, 2
Gulag Archipelago (Solzhenitsyn): published in the West, 1; its author deprived of Soviet citizenship, 2
Gulf of Akaba: an Israeli ship sunk in, 1
Gulf of Suez: Egyptian minesweepers sunk in, 1
Gulf of Thailand: an American aircraft carrier ordered to (1975), 1
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: and the Vietnam War, 1, 2, 3
Gulf War (1991): and television, introduction; fought, 2; land mine deaths after, 3; the world's largest military campaign since, in Kosovo (1999), 4
Gumilev (a Soviet poet): executed, 1
Gurkha troops: in action (1915), 1; in action (1944), 2, 3
Guru: battle of (1904), 1
Gustloff, Wilhelm: assassinated, 1
Guyana: debt reduction for, 1
Haakon VII, King (of Norway): sails into exile, 1
Habibie, President: in Indonesia, 1, 2
Habsburg Empire: see index entry Austria-Hungary
Habte, Yordanos: her experience of a battle, 1
Hacha, Dr: summoned to Berlin, 1
Hafizullah Amin: seizes power in Kabul, 1
The Hague: a court of arbitration in, 1, 2; a court of international justice in, 3, 4, 5, 6; Austria's debts negotiated away in, 7; a bombing raid on (1945), 8; European Unity meeting in (1948), 9; Bosnian war crimes trials in (1995), 10; Milosevic handed over for trial in (2001), 11
Hague Agreements (1930): on reparations, 1
Hahn, Otto: warns against nuclear tests, 1
Haig, General: and the Battle of the Somme, 1, 2; and the third Battle of Ypres, 3; and the fourth Battle of Ypres, 4
Haile Selassie: appeals in vain, 1
Haiphong: seized, 1; Soviet missiles unloaded at, 2; and the future of Vietnam, 3; bombing near, 4
Haiti: revolution and intervention in, 1; a failed 'invasion' of, 2
Haji of Turangzai: raises banner of revolt, 1
Halabja (Iraq): bombed, 1
Halifax, Lord: and the Munich crisis, 1
Hama (Syria): attacked, 1
Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement): kills fellow-Palestinians, 1; Israel to act against, 2
Hamburg: and German naval power, 1; a leaflet raid on, 2; bombed, 3; bombing of, and Dresden, 4; postwar dismantling in, 5
Hamel, Gustav: and an air mail experiment, 1
Hammarskjöld, Dag: his death, in the Congo, 1
Hammer and Sickle (Soviet emblem): replaced, 1
Hampstead Garden Suburb (London): created, 1
Hampton Roads (Virginia): and the convoy system, 1
Hand, Judge Learned: sustains a conviction, 1
Hankey, Colonel: keen on victory at Dardanelles, 1
Hankey, Donald: his stark description of war, 1
Hankow: anti-foreigner riots in, 1; Japanese enter, 2
Hanoi: Vietnamese Communist troops enter, 1; French troops defend, 2; becomes Vietminh capital, 3; the leadership in, resolve of, 4; bombed, 5; and the future of Vietnam, 6; bombing near, 7; government in, controls all Vietnam, 8
Harand, Irene: her courageous protest, 1
Harding, President Warren G.: and the Philippines, 1; and the Federal Inter-Racial Commission, 2; and Britain's willingness to fund its war debts, 3
Hardinge, Lord: and Russian Jewry, 1
Harington, General: and an ultimatum to Turkey, 1
Hartke, Senator: urges end to Vietnam War, 1
Harvard University: anti-Vietnam War protest at, 1
Hauser, Robert: and North Korea, 1
Havana: and a failed coup, 1; and a successful coup, 2
Havel, Vaclav: speaks at an 'illegal' meeting, 1; imprisoned, 2; imprisoned again, 3; imprisoned for the third time, 4; released, 5; hails a 'peaceful revolution', 6; becomes President, 7, 8
Hawaii: and the United States, 1; Sun Yat-sen in, 2
Hawaiian Islands: planned Japanese invasion of, 1
'Head Start': President Johnson launches, 1
Hebrew lessons: and a prison sentence, 1
Hebron: violence in, 1, 2; Arafat enters, 3
Heimwehr (Austrian Fascist organization): forms its own armed force, 1; continues to assert influence, 2; enters government, 3, 4
Heinkel, Ernst: and German aircraft construction, 1; his bombers, in Spain, 2
Hello Dolly! (musical): its premier, 1
Helsinki: demonstrations in, 1; a human rights agreement signed in, 2; an environmental conference in, 3; an emergency summit in, after Iraq invades Kuwait, 4; a Clinton-Yeltsin summit in, 5; Yeltsin, in Oslo, mistakenly believes he is in, 6
Helsinki Agreement (1975): and human rights, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Helsinki Monitors: arrests of, in the Soviet Union, 1; and Czechoslovakia, 2; and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 3; a founder of, allowed to emigrate, 4
Henlein, Konrad: leads pro-Nazi movement, 1, 2; senses 'victory', 3; demands complete autonomy for Sudetenland, 4
Hereros: revolt, 1, 2, 3, 4
'Hero of Madrid': hailed, and then shot, 1
Hersbruck (Franconia); the last Jew leaves, 1
Hertling, Georg von: 'all was lost' (1918), 1
Hesse: Nazi electoral success in, 1, 2
Heuss, Theodor: elected President, 1
Heydrich, Reinhard: keeps close eye on dissent, 1
High Noon (film): and McCarthyism, 1
Highway One (Vietnam): fighting on, 1
Himmler, Heinrich: enlarges SS, 1; Hitler confides in, 2; surrenders, and commits suicide, 3
Hindenburg, Field Marshal: and the First World War, 1, 2, 3; becomes President, 4, 5; re-elected President, 6; rebukes Hitler, 7; asks Hitler to form government, 8; asks Hitler a second time to form government, 9; dies, 10
Hindenburg Line: attacked, 1; overrun, 2
Hindus: and Indian nationalism, 1, 2, 3: and conflicts with India's Muslims, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; and a conflict with India's Christians, 11; and the Untouchables, 12, 13; and the assassination of Gandhi, 14; in East Bengal, 15; and the Sikhs, 16, 17, 18
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan: and the decision to continue the war, 1; and the decision to end the war, 2; his first ever radio broadcast, 3; reduced powers of, 4; opens the Tokyo Olympics, 5
Hiroshima: and the atomic bomb, introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5
Hitler, Adolf: comes to power, introduction; awarded Iron Cross, First Class (1918), 2; gassed (1918), 3; builds up the Nazi Party, 4; attempts to seize power in Munich (1923), 5; and the 'thousand-year' Reich, 6; brought to trial (1924), 7; imprisoned, 8; released, and rebuilds his Nazi Party, 9, 10; publishes Mein Kampf, 11, 12; his road to power, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; becomes Chancellor, 19; his first year in power, 20, 21; his foreign policy, 22, 23, 24; and 'the significance of the laws of race', 25; assassinates opponents within Nazi movement, 26; becomes President, while remaining Chancellor, 27; refugees from, 28, 29, 30, 31; praises Hitler Youth, 32; and the Volkswagen car, 33; and the Berlin Olympics, 34; an opponent of, wins Nobel Peace Prize, 35; and the Spanish Civil War, 36; and the annexation of Austria, 37; and the annexation of the Sudetenland, 38, 39; and Kristallnacht, 40; annexes Bohemia and Moravia, 41; annexes Memel, 42; Roosevelt's questions to, 43; and Poland, 44; orders German troops into Poland (1 September 1939), 45; in Warsaw, 46; plans invasion of Western Europe, 47; awaits victory in Norway, 48; allows Pétain to remain at head of French government, 49; his 'curse', to be 'lifted from the brow of mankind', 50; master of seven countries (by June 1940), 51; plans invasion of Soviet Union, 52, 53; 'The war is won!', 54; and the bombing of London, 55; and the bombing of Munich, 56; and the invasion of Greece, 57, 58; forced to spend night in air-raid shelter, 59; orders invasion of Crete, 60; invades the Soviet Union, 61, 62; and the battle of Moscow, 63, 64; declares war on the United States, 65; reflects on the Japanese, 66; reflects on the fate of the Jews, 67; and the continuing war in Russia, 68; retaliates for the bombing of Lübeck, 69; moves to Vinnitsa to witness victory over Russia, 70; learns of failure in Caucasus, 71; reacts to North African setbacks, 72; and Stalingrad, 73, 74; and Kursk, 75; and reprisals, 76; and the Normandy Landings, 77; and the flying bomb, 78; and the rocket bomb, 79; faces a final two-front war, 80; the Bomb Plot against, 81; 'tired, broken', 82; refuses a request to withdraw troops, 83; returns to Berlin for the last time, 84; moves underground, 85; issues an order that cannot be carried out, 86; emerges briefly from bunker, 87; writes his political testament, 88; commits suicide, 89; his first conquest, forced to pay reparations, 90; Saddam Hussein compared to, 91, 92
Hitler Youth: inaugurated, 1; praised, 2; expanded, 3; Hitler inspects, 4
Hizbullah ('Party of God'): fight against Israel, in southern Lebanon, 1; launch rocket attacks on northern Israel, 2; sign a ceasefire, 3
Ho Chi Minh: troops of, go into action (1944), 1; orders a 'general insurrection' (1945), 2; negotiates in Paris (1945), 3; leads struggle against France, 4, 5, 6, 7; rules from Hanoi, 8, 9; and the Vietnam War with the United States, 10
Ho Chi Minh Trail: a supply line from North to South Vietnam, 1, 2, 3
Hoare, Sir Samuel: and Abyssinia, 1
Hoare-Laval Pact (1934): and Abyssinia, 1
Hodgkin, Dorothy: wins Nobel Prize, 1
Hoffman, General: helps Austria, 1
Hoffman, Johannes: marches on Munich, 1
Hola Camp (Kenya): detainees killed in, 1
Holland: Kaiser finds exile in, 1; Jews find refuge in, 2, 3; planned German invasion of, 4, 5; Germany invades, 6; war dead of (May 1940), 7; and the Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies, 8, 9; resistance in, 10, 11; a refugee family betrayed in, 12; Allied fighting in, 13; the final weeks of war in, 14; German forces in, surrender, 15; and the future of Germany, 16; and the future of Europe, 17; and NATO, 18; and the European Defence Community, 19; and a 'single market', 20; and the Common Market, 21; the Foreign Minister of, visits a Czech dissident, 22; the British Ambassador to, shot dead by IRA, 23; bombers from, in Bosnia, 24; peacekeepers from, in Bosnia, 25; a war criminal flown to, 26; and NATO's war against Serbia, 27
Hollywood: first film made in, 1; and McCarthyism, 2; an actor from, becomes President, 3; and a battle between Ethiopians and Eritreans, 4
Holocaust: survivors of, 1, 2, 3; a book about, banned, 4
Hölz, Max: leads Communist uprising in Germany, 1
Home Rule: for Ireland, 1; and the prospect of partition, 2; established for Southern Ireland, 3; for India, as a prelude to independence, 4
Horns (Syria): unrest in, 1
Honan Province (China): collectivization in, 1
Honduras: a base for Nicaraguan rebels, 1
Honecker, Erich: resigns, 1
Hong Kong: plague in, 1; Sun Yat-sen in, 2; a typhoon in, 3; Japan bombs, 4; Japan overruns, 5; fate of prisoners of war in, 6; Britain leaves, 7
Hood (battlecruiser): sunk, 1
Hoover, Herbert: on famine relief in Russia, 1; favours return of United States to global responsibilities, 2; and the 1929 stock market crash, 3, 4; and the Depression, 5; calls out troops against American Legion, 6; defeated, 7
Hoover Dam: inaugurated, 1
Horse Guards (London): IRA detonate a bomb at, 1
Horst Wessel Song (Nazi anthem): heard in Austria, 1
Horthy, Admiral: and the German occupation of Hungary, 1
Hottentots: rebel, 1, 2, 3
Hötzendorf, Conrad von: and the path to war (1913–14), 1, 2, 3; urges a negotiated peace (1915), 4; renews his call for peace (1916), 5
House, Colonel: and the coming of war in 1914, 1
Houston (Texas): Kennedy in, on way to Dallas, 1
Hoxha, Enver: rules Albania, 1; his statue pulled down, 2
Hsuchow: Chiang Kai-shek advances to, 1
Hu Feng: imprisoned, 1
Hua Kuo-feng: succeeds Mao Tse-tung, 1
Hue (South Vietnam): overrun, 1
Hugenberg, Alfred: Hitler joins forces with, 1; demands frontier revision, 2
Hughes, Sarah: swears in a new President, on board an aircraft, 1
Hull, Cordell: Abyssinia, and a wider warning, 1; urges an end to isolationism, 2
Human Rights Committee (Moscow): established, 1; appeals to the West, 2
Hume, John: wins Nobel Prize, 1
Hunan Province (China): Communist activity in, 1, 2
Hungarians: in Austria-Hungary, 1; inspire Irish nationalism, 2; in New York, 3; in Czechoslovakia, 4; in Hungary, 5
Hungarian Democratic Forum: established (1988), 1
Hungary: independent (1918), 1; revolution in (1919), 2; its territory defined (1919), 3; fall of Communism in, 4; right-wing ascendancy in, 5; banking crisis in, 6; and Hitler's Germany, 7, 8; anti-Semitism in, 9; and Yugoslavia, 10, 11; and the Spanish Civil War, 12; occupies Ruthenia, 13; declares war on Germany, 14; oil fields of, denied to Germany, 15; German population removed from, 16; Communist rule in, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22; Soviet reparations from, 23; joins Warsaw Pact, 24; protest in, 25; revolution in, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30; 'was, is and will remain a Socialist country', 31; a United Nations Committee denied entrance to, 32; Communist rule continues in (1956–), 33; and Warsaw Pact manoeuvres, 34, 35; Roman Catholics re-arrested in, 36; and the Czechoslovak revolution (1968), 37; and Gorbachev, 38; and the call for democracy, 39; Communism crumbles in, 40, 41, 42; East Germans travel through, 43; withdraws from Warsaw Pact, 44; signs agreement with Moldova, 45; joins NATO, 46, 47
Hupeh Province (China): disastrous floods in, 1
Husak, Gustav: replaces Dubček, 1; seeks reassurance in Moscow, 2
Hussein, King (of Jordan): attacks Israel, 1; drives out PLO, 2; makes peace with Israel, 3, 4
Hutus: in Rwanda, 1, 2, 3, 4; in Burundi, 5, 6; in Zaire, 7
Hyderabad: fighting in, 1
Hydrogen bomb: repercussions of, introduction; work begins on, 2; tested by the United States, 3, 4; and 'the risk of making the world uninhabitable', 5; Nobel Prize winners protest against, 6; intensification of tests of, 7, 8; France tests, 9
Ibarruri, Dolores: at Bolshoi Ballet, 1
Iceland: and NATO, 1
Idaho: a town in, lit by nuclear power, 1; criticism of the Vietnam War voiced in, 2
Iliescu, Ion: an anti-Communist, elected President, 1
Imjjin River: and the Korean War, 1
Immorality Act (1948): and apartheid, 1
Implementation Force (IFOR): for Bosnia, 1
Inchon: an amphibious landing at, 1
Independent Association of Polish Students: established, 1
India: famine in, 1, 2; plague in, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; earthquakes in, 14, 15; and smallpox, 16, 17; tornado in, 18; floods in, 19; nationalist activity in, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29; Indians in administration of, 30; an air mail experiment in, 31; influenza epidemic in, 32; Hindu-Muslim clashes in, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39; constitutional reforms in, 40, 41, 42, 43; 'Burma Road' links China with, 44; and the path to independence, and partition, 45, 46; and Kashmir, 47, 48; and Gandhi's assassination, 49; and the Korean War, 50; population growth in, 51, 52; and the Lhasa-India highway, 53; gives asylum to Dalai Lama, 54; and the Soviet Union, 55; Mother Teresa in, 56; and China, 57; and the creation of Bangladesh, 58; becomes a nuclear power, 59, 60, 61; poverty in, 62; constitutional turmoil in, 63, 64; social reform plans for, 65; liberties restored in, 66; Sikh unrest in, 67, 68; Indira Gandhi assassinated in, 69; and the Tamil insurrection in Sri Lanka, 70, 71, 72; refugees from, in Pakistan, 73; Sikh-Hindu violence in, 74, 75; two Christians killed in, 76; two nuns from, murdered in Yemen, 77; Rajiv Gandhi assassinated in, 78; motor car deaths in, 79; American aid to, 80; poverty and military expenditure in, 81
Indian Criminal Law: amended, 1
Indian National Congress: challenges Britain, 1; Hindu-Muslim harmony in, 2; boycotts Simon Commission, 3; rejects Dominion Status, 4; and the struggle against British rule, 5, 6, 7
Indian Ocean: a Moroccan exile in, 1; a salt march to, 2; a possible Jewish haven in, 3; and the Seychelles, 4; an island in, leased to the United States, 5
Indian troops: in action, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; eligible for Victoria Cross, 7; at Amritsar, 8; in Japanese captivity, 9; in Egypt, 10; in Italy, 11, 12; in Indochina, 13; in Sri Lanka, 14
Indiana: and votes for women, 1; a Senator from, urges end to Vietnam War, 2
Indians: in South Africa, 1, 2, 3, 4; in Kenya and Uganda, 5; in Uganda, 6; in the Seychelles, 7
Indochina: see index entry French Indochina
Indonesia: 'non-aligned' nations meet in, 1; and the Soviet Union, 2; and Malaysia, 3; invades East Timor, 4; destruction of forests in, 5; pro-democracy riots in, 6; and the future of East Timor, 7; inter-religious riots in, 8
influenza: worldwide epidemic of, 1; 'Mad Mullah' succumbs to, 2; pandemic of, 3; Franco dies of, 4
Inkatha movement (South Africa): Mandela appeals to, 1; and inter-communal violence, 2, 3; and the 1994 elections, 4; and an apology, 5
Inner Mongolia: occupied by Japan, 1
Innsbruck: Italian demands in, 1
Inönü, Battle of (1922): 1
Interahamwe (Hutu militiamen): inside Zaire, 1
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs): with nuclear warheads, 1, 2, 3; and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), 4; continuing development of, 5, 6; to be abolished, 7
Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty: signed (1988), 1
International Brigade: in Spain, 1, 2
International Campaign to Ban Landmines: awarded Nobel Prize, 1
International Commission of Jurists: and Uganda, 1; and Equatorial Guinea, 2
International Committee of the Red Cross (I.C.R.C.): see index entry Red Cross
International Court of Justice: see index entry Permanent Court of International Justice
International Military Tribunal: sentences German war criminals to death, 1; sentences Japanese war criminals to death, 2; revived, over Yugoslavia, 3, and over Rwanda, 4, 5
International Olympic Committee: readmits South Africa, 1
International Socialist Congress: and the question of patriotism, 1
International War Crimes Tribunal: established, for Rwanda, 1; conducts war crimes trials, 2; and war crimes in Bosnia, 3, 4, 5; and war crimes in Kosovo, 6
Internet: established, 1; and a pro-democracy magazine, 2; and the China Democracy Parry, 3; and Iran, 4
Intifada (uprising): on the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip, 1
Ipeçki, Abdi: murdered, 1
Iran (formerly Persia): Dr Musaddiq's challenge in, 1; growing strength of Islam in, 2; joins Baghdad Pact, 3; Islamic fervour in, 4, 5; earthquake in, 6; at war with Iraq, 7, 8, 9, 10; and the American hostages, 11, 12; supports anti-Israeli Hizballah ('Party of God'), 13; and Lebanon, 14; Afghan refugees in, 15; pilgrims from, clash in Mecca, 16; signs agreement with Ukraine, 17; supports Muslim militants, 18; challenged by Islamic extremists, 19; repression challenged in, 20
Iraq: and Britain, 1; Assyrian Christians murdered in, 2; and Palestine, 3; Jews from, emigrate to Israel, 4; and the Baghdad Pact, 5; Ayatollah Khomeini briefly in exile in, 6; and the Six-Day War, 7; and the Lebanese civil war, 8; at war with Iran, 9, 10, 11, 12; nuclear reactor in, attacked, 13; invades Kuwait, 14
Ireland: nationalist fervour in, 1, 2; Easter Uprising in (1916), 3; continued violence in, 4, 5; and the separation of North and South, 6; for subsequent index entries see Ireland (Eire, Republic of Ireland) Ireland (Eire, Republic of Ireland): and the first non-stop flight from Newfoundland, 7; volunteers from, in Spain, 8; soldiers from, in the Congo, 9; and Northern Ireland, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; Earl Mountbatten killed in, by the IRA, 15; Pope John Paul II visits, 16; and the Falklands War, 17; and Chernobyl, 18; does not buy American arms, 19
Irish: in New York, 1
Irish Free State: established, 1; continued violence in, 2
Irish Republican Army (IRA): enlarged, 1; in action, 2; accepts truce, 3; continued killings by, 4; and the renewed violence in Northern Ireland (1969–), 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; and violence on the British mainland, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19; announces a ceasefire, 20, 21; 'horrified' by the Omaha bomb, 22
Irish Treaty (1921): signed, 1; a signatory of, assassinated, 2
iron and steel: and the path to European unity, 1
Iron Curtain: Communist authority behind, 1; and the call for European unity, 2; and divided Germany, 3
Irwin, Lord: and India, 1, 2; for subsequent index entries see Halifax, Lord
Isfahan (Iran): military rule in, 1
Islam: see index entry Muslims
Islamic Front: seize a town in Syria, 1
Islamic Jihad: kill fellow-Palestinians, 1; Israel to act against, 2
Islamic Salvation Front (Algeria): and a cancelled election, 1
Ismailia: civilians evacuated from, 1
Ismet Pasha (later Inönü): negotiates with Britain, 1
Isonzo, Battles of (1917–18): 1, 2
Israel: established, 1; Arabs in, 2; and the Suez Crisis, 3, 4; and the Six-Day War, 5; and Polish government hostility, 6; Polish Jews emigrate to, 7; signs Non-Proliferation Treaty, 8; and the War of Attrition, 9; terrorist actions in, 10, 11; Soviet Jews seek to emigrate to, 12; and the October War, 13; and nuclear weapons, 14; and the continuing Soviet Jewry crisis, 15, 16; and Entebbe, 17; negotiates with Egypt, 18, 19; and the Arab oil weapon, 20; and the future of the West Bank and Gaza, 21, 22, 23; invades Lebanon, 24; occupation of Lebanon by, 25; and Libya, 26; and a hijacking, 27; Ethiopian Jews emigrate to, 28; Shcharansky reaches, 29; former Prisoners of Zion reach, 30; Iraq launches Scud missiles against, 31; United States aid to, 32; the Intifada in, 33, 34, 35; and the peace process, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42; suicide bombs in, 43, 44
Istanbul (formerly Constantinople): and Mustafa Kemal's reforms, 1
Italian-Abyssinian War (1934–5): introduction, 2
Italians: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2, 3; emigrate to the United States, 4; in New York, 5; and a naval accident, 6
Italy: and China, 1, 2, 3; and Macedonia, 4; a volcanic eruption in, 5; unrest in, 6; an earthquake in, 7; cinema in, 8; conquers Libya, 9, 10; acquires Dodecanese, 11; Arab resistance to, in Libya, 12; and the First World War, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17; territorial gains of, 18; intervenes in Russia, 19; not consulted over the Ruhr, 20; and reparations, 21, 22; and Turkey, 23; Fascist movement in, 24; and naval disarmament, 25; and Mussolini's 'March on Rome', 26; challenged by Mustafa Kemal, 27, 28, 29; and war debts to the United States, 30, 31; recognizes Soviet Union, 32; Mussolini's rule in, 33, 34, 35; and the Locarno Treaty, 36; the Corporate State established in, 37; seeks allies, 38; German aircraft production in, 39; and Hungary, 40; and China, 41; earthquake in, 42; and Hitler's Germany, 43 and Abyssinia, 44, 45; and the Spanish Civil War, 46, 47, 48; conquers Albania, 49; occupies two French provinces, 50; invades Greece, 51; and Libya, 52; and Sicily, 53; seeks armistice, 54; partisans and reprisals in, 55; Allies help resistance in, 56; continued fighting in (1944–5), 57, 58; a reprisal in, 59; Allied air help for Warsaw from, 60; a daughter of the King of, killed in a bombing raid, 61; German armies in, surrender, 62; becomes a Republic, 63; and NATO, 64; and the European Defence Community, 65; a royal exile in, 66; joins Western European Union, 67; and a 'single market', 68; and the Common Market, 69; Dr Zhivago published in, 70; soldiers from, in the Congo, 71; and the Falklands War, 72; peacekeepers from, in Lebanon, 73; and Chernobyl, 74; manufactures landmines, 75; and Kosovo, 76; and NATO's war against Serbia, 77 Ivory Coast: becomes independent, 78; an international meeting in, 79
Iwo Jima: amphibious landing on, 1
Izetbegovic, Alija: Bosnia's first President, 1
Izvestya (newspaper): attacks Solzhenitsyn, 1; rejects 'classless freedom of speech', 2
JFK Stadium (Philadelphia): Live Aid in, 1
Jaffna (Sri Lanka): under attack, 1, 2, 3
Jagow, Gottlieb von: and the coming of war in 1914, 1, 2, 3
Jakarta (Indonesia): riots in, 1
Jallianwalla Bagh (Amritsar): killings at, 1
Jamaica: granted internal self-government, 1
Jammu: Indian gains in (1971), 1
Japan: and China, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and Korea, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; and Russia, 13, 14, 15; and Taiwan, 16, 17; offers earthquake relief, 18; receives earthquake relief, 19; receives German Mandates, 20; and Turkey, 21; and naval disarmament, 22; and Manchuria, 23, 24, 25, 26; occupies Inner Mongolia, 27; and the Spanish Civil War, 28; and the Sino-Japanese War, 29, 30, 31, 32; attacks American, British and Dutch possessions (December 1941), 33, 34, 35; bombs Darwin, 36; naval battles of, in the Pacific, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42; and a maritime disaster (1944), 43; bombing of (1945), 44, 45; final assaults on (April-August 1945), 46; and a suicide flying bomb, 47; and the battle for Okinawa, 48; to be defended, 49; atomic bombs dropped on, 50; Soviet Union declares war on, 51; surrender of, 52; troops of, enlisted by Allies in Indochina, 53; and the United Nations, 54; post-war administration of, 55; regains independence, 56; American troops in, and the Korean War, 57; and war criminals, 58; and radioactive rain, 59; and radioactive dust, 60; hosts the Olympic Games, 61; economic strides of, 62; seeks Malay-Indonesian talks, 63; and a Chinese atom bomb test, 64; a Soviet fighter pilot seeks asylum in, 65; aids poorest countries, 66; boycotts Moscow Olympics, 67; and the 'Walkman', 68; tourists from, and an act of terror, 69; aids Palestinian Authority, 70
Jarlan, André: killed in a police raid, 1
Jaruzelski, General: confronts Solidarity, 1; declares martial law, 2, 3; bans Solidarity, 4; ends martial law, 5; maintains totalitarian rule, 6
Jassy, Bishop of: arrested, 1
Java: Dutch on, surrender, 1
Jawara, Sir Dawda: rules Gambia, 1
Jaworzno (Poland): a forced labour camp at (1953), 1
Jehovah's Witnesses: persecuted, in China, 1
Jemayel, Bashir: assassinated, 1
Jena: a factory in, removed to Russia, 1; dissenters in, form a 'peace movement', 2
Jenin: Israeli forces leave, 1
Jericho: Palestinian flag raised over, 1, 2, 3
Jerusalem: surrenders (1917), 1; Arab-Israel conflict in, 2; Britain plans to retain, 3; Jewish quarter of, bombarded (1948), 4; a McDonalds in, 5; and the Six-Day War, 6, 7; Sadat visits, 8; a bus bomb in, 9; a Holy War threatened for, 10; Rabin denounced in, 11; a suicide bomb in, 12
Jesus: and a question of opinion polls, 1; and Pope John Paul II's first visit, as Pope, to Poland, 2
jet aircraft: in action (1944), 1, 2, 3; in the Korean War, 4; in the Congo, 5; fly film of the Tokyo Olympics to the United States, 6; a 'jumbo' and a Concorde, have their maiden flights, 7; and a hijacking, 8
'Jewish capitalism': an alleged agent of, 1
'Jewish financiers… Marxist subversives': Hitler's enemies, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; Franco's enemies, 8
Jewish National Home: in prospect, 1; promised, 2; established, 3; restrictions on immigration to, 4, 5; and the emergence of Israel, 6
Jewish Socialist Workers' Party (the 'Bund'): active, 1, 2, 3; a member of, sent by Stalin to China, 4
Jews: fate of, introduction; emigrate to the United States, 2, 3; in the Russian Empire, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; in the Soviet Union, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22; in Roumania, 23, 24; in Morocco, 25; in Turkey, 26; in Palestine, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32; in Britain, 33; in the Bavarian revolution, 34, 35; in the Ruhr, 36; in Poland, 37, 38; in Germany, 39; and the Nazi Party, 40, 41, 42, 43; and Hitler, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50; send help to famine regions of Russia, 51; in Hungary, 52, 53; in Austria, 54; in Italy, 55; under Nazi rule in Germany, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63; mass emigration of (1933–9), 64, 65, 66, 67; in Switzerland, 68; and the Spanish Civil War, 69; and the British Union of Fascists, 70; and a possible haven in Madagascar, 71; and the German annexation of Austria, 72; and the German annexation of the Sudetenland, 73; expulsion of, from Germany (1938), 74; in Czechoslovakia, 75, 76, 77; and the Second World War, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91; and the Warsaw Ghetto revolt, 92; and a revolt at Auschwitz, 93; liberated, 94; and Hitler's political testament ('the real guilty party'), 95; and the creation of Israel, 96, 97; Displaced Persons, 98; in South Africa, 99, 100; and the PLO, 101; and Franco, 102; and the Entebbe hijacking, 103; a 'dark page' in the history of, 104; and Libya's Radio of Vengeance and Sacred Hate, 105; reach Israel from Ethiopia, 106; acts of terror against, 107, 108; and an inter-faith vigil, 109
Jihad (Holy War): on the North-West Frontier of India, 1; in French Morocco, 2; and Jerusalem, 3
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali: leads India's Muslims, 1
Jobs, Steven: and Apple computers, 1
Jodl, General: and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, 1; signs unconditional surrender, 2; hanged, 3
Johannesburg: violence in, 1, 2; expulsions from, 3; arrests in, 4; protests and killings in, 5; Desmond Tutu becomes archbishop of, 6; inter-communal violence in, 7
John Paul II, Pope: and the revitalization of Poland, 1, 2; visits Ireland, 3; visits Poland, 4, 5; not allowed to visit Czechoslovakia, 6; condemns killings in Algeria, 7; appeals for an amnesty, 8
Johnson, Lady Bird: rebuked, 1
Johnson, Lyndon Baines: and the New Deal, 1; and America's global obligations, 2; and civil rights, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and the Berlin crisis (of 1961), 8; becomes President, 9; and Vietnam, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; social policies of, 17, 18; elected President, 19; and the Middle East, 20; resigns, 21
Johnston Island (Pacific): and American H-bomb test at, 1
Jones, Colonel H.: killed on the Falklands, 1
Jones, Stanley: released from prison, 1
Jordan: Palestinian Arab refugees in, 1; PLO in, 2; refuse to participate at Camp David, 3; and the 'Reagan Plan', 4; makes peace with Israel, 5
Jordan River: and the 'West Bank', 1
Jorga, Judge: and a war crimes conviction, 1
Juan Carlos: becomes king (of Spain), 1
Juba (Sudan): Christians murdered in, 1
jukebox: invented, 1
Junkers, Hugo: manufactures clandestine warplanes, 1, 2; his bombers, in Spain, 3
'Junta': and the Spanish Civil War, 1
Jutland, Battle of (1916): 1
K: a witness to war crimes in Rwanda, 1
K-For (Kosovo Force): NATO-led peacekeepers, 1
KGB (Soviet secret police, successor to OGPU): and slave labour, 1; Andropov becomes chief of, 2; and the arrest of Bukovsky, 3; harasses dissidents, 4; a former chief of, rules Russia, 5; power of, undiminished, 6; a challenge to, 7
Kabul: a kidnapping in, 1; overrun, by Taleban, 2
Kaffirs: revolt, 1
Kahn, Sam: removed from parliament, 1
Kahr, Dr von: Hitler's adversary, 1
Kalantas, Roman: burns himself to death, 1
Kalenjin tribe: in Kenya, 1
Kamenev, Lev: Stalin moves against, 1; Stalin humiliates, 2; accused, 3; arrested, 4; eliminated, 5
kamikaze (suicide pilots): in action, 1, 2, 3
Kampelman, Max: and Soviet 'disdain' of human rights, 1
Kampuchea (formerly Cambodia): a People's Republic established in (until 1989), 1
Kandahar (Afghanistan): Russians killed in, 1
Kansas City; and the first Country Club, 1
Kansu Province (China): Muslim revolt in, 1
Kapp, Dr Wolfgang: leads right-wing putsch, 1
Karachi: and Indian nationalism, 1; Hindu-Muslim riots in, 2
Karadzic, Radovan: and war crimes, 1
Karens (in Burma): resistance by, 1
Karloff, Boris: stars, 1
Karlsbad programme (1938): and the fate of the Sudetenland, 1
Karmal, Babrak: comes to power in Kabul, 1
Karnow, Stanley: and Vietnam, 1
Karolyi, Count Michael: and Hungarian independence, 1
Kasavubu, President: accepts United Nations help, 1
Kashmir: riots in (1931), 1; partitioned (1947), 2; fighting in (1965), 3; Indian gains in (1971), 4
Kashmir, Maharaja of: asks to join India, 1
Kasparov, Garry: defeated by a computer, 1
Katanga Province (of the Belgian Congo): breaks away, 1; power struggle in, 2, 3, 4
Katowice (Poland): a forced labour camp near, 1
Katunayake airport (Sri Lanka): an act of terror at, 1
Katyn: Polish prisoners of war shot by Russians at, 1; remains a taboo subject, 2
Kaunas: see index entry Kovno
Kazakhstan: 'Virgin Lands' scheme in, 1; riots in, 2; nuclear weapons dismantled in, 3; declares independence, 4
Kellogg, Frank B.: and China, 1; his 'Peace Pact', 2, 3; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 4
Kellogg, W. K.: his new breakfast cereal, 1
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1929): comes into force, outlawing war, 1; and a Nobel Peace Prize, 2
Kennedy, Jacqueline: with her husband in Texas, 1
Kennedy, President John F.: his successful Presidential challenge, 1; his Presidency, 2; and the Bay of Pigs, 3; and social reform, 4; and the Peace Corps, 5; and the Congo, 6; and space exploration, 7; meets Khrushchev, 8; and Berlin, 9, 10, 11; and nuclear disarmament, 12; resumes American H-bomb tests, 13; and the Cuban missile crisis, 14; opens 'hot line' with Khrushchev, 15; and Vietnam, 16, 17; and civil rights, 18, 19; and the East-West divide, 20; assassinated, introduction, 22; Johnson determined to secure proposed legislation of, 23, 24
Kennedy, Patrick: his death, 1
Kennedy, Robert: urges release of Martin Luther King, 1; visits South Africa, and speaks out against apartheid; 2; critical of Vietnam War, 3; wins California Democratic primary, 4; assassinated, 5
Kent State University (Ohio): four students killed at, 1
Kenya: a challenge to British rule in, 1, 2; emergence of black majority rule in, 3; Indians in, harassed, 4; technical aid for, 5; an international meeting in, 6; moves away from despotic rule, 7
Kenyatta, Jomo: imprisoned, 1; Kenya after his death, 2
Kerensky, Alexander: favours continuation of war (1917), 1, 2; fails to dislodge Bolsheviks, 3
Khadaffi, Colonel: and the Jews, 1; and the United States, 2
Kharkov: a leading Communist from, belittled by Stalin, 1; Germans withdraw from (1943), 2
Khatami, President (of Iran): seeks conciliation, 1, 2
Khe Sanh (South Vietnam): attacked, 1
Khilafat Movement: and Indian nationalism, 1; and the Moplah revolt, 2
Khmer Rouge: attack Phnom Penh, 1; capture Phnom Penh, 2; and Pol Pot's reign of terror, 3, 4
Khoi, Email: sends poems by fax, 1
Khomeini, Ayatollah: opposes secular rule in Iran, 1; arrested, then exiled, 2; calls for an Islamic uprising, 3; comes to power in Iran, 4; and the American hostages, 5; and the Iran-Iraq war, 6; and a pilgrimage to Mecca, 7
Khrushchev, Nikita: leads the Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3; denounces Stalin, 4; and Polish discontent, 5, 6; and the Volga dam, 7; protests to Nixon, 8; visits the United States, 9; and the U-2 spy plane, 10; bangs his shoe, 11; meets Kennedy in Vienna, 12; and Berlin, 13; and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 14; opens 'hot line' with Kennedy, 15; forced to resign, 16
Kibeho camp (Rwanda): a massacre in, 1
Kiel: a submarine sinks off, 1; a maritime disaster at, 2
Kielce (Poland): Jews murdered in (1946), 1; Bishop of, imprisoned, 2
Kiev: student unrest in, 1, 2; Polish minority in, 3; an assassination in, 4; troops reach, from the war zones, 5; Poles enter, 6; Germans enter, 7; Jews murdered in, 8; arrests in, 9; nationalist ferment in, 10; Clinton visits, 11
Kikuyu tribe: in Kenya 1, 2
Kilburn, Tom: and the computer age, 1
Kilian Barracks (Budapest): an atrocity at, 1
Kim Il Sung: rules North Korea, 1, 2
Kim Sun-Myung: released from prison, after forty-four years, 1
Kimberley (South Africa): deaths in, 1
King, Dr Martin Luther: protests, 1; warns, 2; organizes, 3; arrested, 4; leads new civil rights campaign, 5; assassinated, 6
Kinov, General: imprisoned, 1
Kipling, Rudyard: his son John killed in action, 1
Kirgizia: becomes independent, 1
Kirkuk (Iraq): Kurds in, bombed, 1
Kirov, Sergei: assassinated, 1
Kirov Ballet: a defector from, 1
Kiryat Shmona (Israel): a terrorist attack on, 1
Kishi, Nobosuke: arrested, later Prime Minister, 1
Kishinev: pogrom in, 1; demands for greater freedom in, 2
Kissinger, Henry: and Vietnam, 1, 2, 3; and China, 4; and the Middle East, 5; and global divisions, 6
Kitchener, Lord: and the Dardanelles, 1
Kitt, Eartha: critical of Vietnam War, 1
Kitty Hawk (North Carolina): a pioneer flight at, 1
Klagenfurt: Austrian Nazis active in, 1
Klavana (women's Ku Klux Klan): march in New York, 1
Klinghoffer, Leon: murdered, 1
Knesset (Israeli Parliament): Sadat to speak in, 1; Sadat's appeal to, 2; votes on Israeli-Palestinian agreement, 3
Knin (Croatia): Serbs killed in, 1
Kochetov, Vsevolod: pleads for cultural isolation, 1
Kohl, Helmut: and Gorbachev, 1
Koja Chemen Tepe: held, but then lost (1915), 1
Koje Island: prisoners of war on, 1
Kokura: to be an atomic bomb target, but spared, 1
Kolakowski, Professor: urges greater freedoms in Poland, 1
Kolchak, Admiral: leads anti-Bolshevik Russians, 1, 2
Kolwezi (Zaire): captured, 1
Komarov, Colonel: an astronaut, killed on re-entry, 1
Königsberg: Nazi violence in (1932), 1; surrenders to the Russians (1945), 2; acquired by the Soviet Union (and re-named Kaliningrad), 3
Konopischt (Bohemia): a crucial meeting in (1914), 1
Koo, Dr Wellington: applauded, 1
Koran: reprinted, in China, 1
Korea: and Japan, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and Russia, 7; and Spain, 8; for subsequent index entries see North Korea and South Korea
Korean War: introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; ends, 10; and McCarthyism, 11; and the use of American forces overseas, 12; and American trade with China, 13; largest movement overseas of British troops since, 14; largest British artillery bombardment since, 15
Koreans: in China, a minority, 1
Korosec, Father: leads Serbs and Slovenes, 1
Korowicz, Professor: seeks asylum, 1
Kos: acquired by Italy, 1
Kosovo: fighting for (1915), 1; demands by the Albanian population of (1984), 2; conflict in (1987–99), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and NATO's war against Serbia, 8, 9; and war crimes, 10
Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA): attacks Serbian security forces, 1; agrees to a ceasefire, 2; protected by peacekeepers, 3; and arms smuggling, 4
Kostov, Traicho: executed, 1
Kosygin, Aleksei: Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, 1; and the Middle East, 2; and Jewish emigration, 3
Kovalyov, Sergei: calls for end to Chechen war, 1, 2
Kovno: a government overthrown in, 1; a Roman Catholic burns himself to death in, 2
Kozo, Takokoro: witnesses fate of Nanking, 1
Krajina region (Croatia): refugees from, 1
Krasnodar Array: a Soviet radar-based defence line, 1
Kremlin (Moscow): occupied by Bolsheviks, 1; a hotel near, and the fate of its honoured guests, 2; 'hand-picked' candidates of, 3; and a May Day review, 4; church services held in (1990), 5
Krenz, Egon: promises 'dialogue and change', 1
Kristallnacht: a modern pogrom, 1; refugees from, 2
Kronstadt: mutiny in (1905), 1; officers murdered in (1917), 2; and the Bolshevik revolution (1917), 3; discontent with Communism at (1921), 4
Krstic, General: wanted for war crimes, 1
Krupp steel: Hitler Youth 'hard as', 1
Krupp Works (Essen): a violent episode at (1923), 1
Krupskaya, Nadezhda (Lenin's widow): appeals on behalf of two colleagues, 1
Krylenko, N. B.: and a show trial, 1
Ku Klux Klan: lynchings by, 1, 2; a New York march by, 3; a civil rights killing by, 4
Kufra Oasis (Libya): Italians capture, 1
Kulaks: Stalin's campaign against, 1, 2; in Czechoslovakia, 3
Kumaratunga, Chandrika: seeks ethnic calm in Sri Lanka, 1
Kun, Bela: leads revolution, 1; victories and defeats of, 2; a victim of Stalin's purges, 3
Kung Ping-mei, Bishop: remains in prison, 1
Kuomintang: establish government in Canton, 1; gain ground, 2; struggle with warlords, 3; extend authority, 4; struggle with Communists, 5, 6
Kurds: in the Turkish Empire, 1; in Turkey, 2; in Iran, 3; in Iraq, 4, 5, 6
Kurfürstendamm (Berlin): Jews attacked in, 1
Kursk: German offensive against, 1
Kut: besieged, 1
Kutschera, General: killed by partisans, 1
Kuwait: conflict over (1901), 1; technical aid for (1975), 2; invaded by Iraq (1990), 3; liberated, 4; land mine deaths in, 5
Ky, Air Vice-Marshal: and the Vietnam War, 1
Labour Party (Britain): founded (1900), 1; comes to power (1945), 2; defeated (1951), 3; returns to power (1964), 4; forms a government (1997), as New Labour, 5
Ladysmith: besieged, 1
Lahore: Hindu-Muslim riots in, 1, 2; an All-India Congress meets in, 3; and a death sentence, 4
Laika (a dog): placed into orbit, 1
Lake Geneva: and Chernobyl, 1
Lancashire: soldiers from, at Gallipoli, 1
Lang Vei (South Vietnam): bombed, 1
Langi tribes: in Uganda, 1
Lao She: commits suicide, 1
Laos: and France, 1; and the conflict in Vietnam, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; Laotian Communists come to power in, 9; Canada sends aid to, 10
lasers: for surgery, 1; for weaponry, 2, 3
Latvia: declares independence (1918), 1; Germans seek to annex part of, 2; liberated, 3; moderation prevails in, 4; war debts to the United States, 5; Hitler gives Stalin control of, 6, 7; Soviet rule in, 8, 9; dissent in, 10; Soviet military exercises in, 11; nationalist ferment in, 12, 13; declares independence, 14; Soviet troops intervene in, 15; Soviet troops ordered to intervene in, 16; reiterates declaration of independence, 17
Latvians: in German-occupied Poland, 1
Lausanne Conference (1932): on reparations, 1
Lausanne Treaty (1923): and the Turkish republic, 1, 2
Laval, Pierre: and Abyssinia, 1
League of Nations: proposed (1916), 1; established (1919), 2; and Mandates, 3; and Danzig, 4, 5, 6; its Covenant, 7; and the Supreme Allied Council, 8; and Armenia, 9; and the Saar, 10, 11; Permanent Court of International Justice set up by, 12; and famine relief in Russia, 13; and Soviet repression in Georgia, 14; Germany admitted to, 15; and a 'Peace Pact' (1928), 16, 17; and the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931), 18; not asked to help Russia, 19; Germany withdraws from, 20; and a Yugoslav assassination, 21; and Abyssinia, 22; and refugees from Germany, 23; and German compulsory military service, 24; and global health, 25; and the Sino-Japanese War, 26; and the Russo-Finnish War, 27; and the United Nations, 28
Lebanon: becomes a French Mandate, 1; Palestinian Arab refugees in, 2; PLO flee from Jordan to, 3; PLO in, uses as a base for terror, 4; civil war in, 5, 6; shelling from, 7; Israeli invasion of (1982), 8; Israeli zone of occupation in, 9; renewed civil war in, 10, 11; and a hijacking, 12; and a prisoner exchange, 13; Israel shelled from, 14; Israel withdraws from, 15
Lebed, General: his mission to Chechenya, 1
Le Bourget Airport (Paris): Lindbergh lands at, 1
Le Duc Tho: negotiates with Kissinger, 1, 2
L'Exprèss: and a Soviet writer's apology, 1
Leipzig: American troops enter (1945), 1; democratic rallies in (1989), 2
LeMay, General Curtis: wants to bomb North Vietnam, 1
Lemberg (Lvov): German influence in, 1; Ruthenian unrest in, 2, 3; overrun (1914), 4; a Ukrainian university established in, under Polish rule, 5; acquired by the Soviet Union, 6
Lemelsen, General: protests about 'senseless shootings', 1
Le Monde (newspaper): publishes Solzhenitsyn, 1
Lena River: violence on, 1
Lend-Lease: and American military supplies to Britain, 1
Lenin, Vladimir: builds a revolutionary Party, 1; in exile, 2; leads Bolsheviks, 3; returns to exile, 4; obtains greater powers, 5; and the First World War, 6; calls for end to war (1917), 7; flees Petrograd, 8; returns to Petrograd, to lead revolution, 9; and peace negotiations with Germany, 10; and the revolutions in Hungary and Bavaria, 11; grants amnesty to Cossacks, 12; authorizes secret talks with Poles, 13; suppresses Green Army revolt, 14; sends troops to Bukhara, 15; his New Economic Policy (NEP), 16, 17; devises measures to combat famine, 18; dictates his 'testament', 19; dies, 20; a colleague of, expelled from the Communist Party, 21; his widow appeals on behalf of two colleagues, 22; a colleague of, disappears without trace, 23; his bust thrown down (in Czechoslovakia), 24; 'no change' since, 25; his name to be expunged, 26
Leningrad: a suicide in, 1; a demotion in, 2; an assassination in, 3; besieged, 4; deaths from starvation in, 5; within missile range, 6; arrests in, 7; the fate of a dissident in, 8; renamed St Petersburg, 9
Leningrad Ballet: becomes Kirov Ballet, 1
Lennon, John: murdered, 1
Leonov, Lieutenant-Colonel: walks in space, 1
Leopold, King of the Belgians: exposed, 1
Léopoldville: United Nations troops in, 1
Lerroux, Alejandro: declares martial law in Spain, 1
Lesotho: Desmond Tutu, bishop of, 1
Letchworth: a 'garden city' at, 1
Leviné, Eugen: declares Soviet Republic in Munich, 1; shot, 2
Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944): 1
Lhasa: occupied by Britain, 1; anti-Chinese resistance on the highway to, 2; anti-Chinese resistance in, 3
Liberia: German concessions in, transferred to Britain and France, 1; and war debts to the United States, 2
Libya: Italian conquest of, 1, 2, 3; Mussolini active in, 4; Second World War battles in, 5; and the Lebanese civil war, 6; hijackers land in, 7; and Chad, 8; and South Africa, 9; and the Jews, 10; and the United States, 11
Liebknecht, Karl: proclaims Soviet Republic in Berlin, 1; killed, 2
Life (magazine): reports on Vietnam War, 1
Life of Moses: an early feature film, 1
Lignica (Poland): anti-Soviet demonstrations in, 1
Lin Hai: owner of a software company, arrested, 1, 2
Lincoln, Abraham: emulated (in the Korean War), 1; and a civil rights anniversary (1963), 2
Lincoln Memorial (Washington): Martin Luther King speaks from, 1; Nixon talks to protestors at, 2
Lindbergh, Captain Charles: his aerial exploits, 1
Lisbon: failed seizures of power in, 1; attacks on Spanish property in, 2
Lithuania: independent, introduction, German troops enter (1915), 2, 3; Germans seek to annex (1918), 4; a seizure of power in (1926), 5; possible danger to (1934), 6; cedes Memel to Germany, 7; Hitler gives Stalin control of, 8, 9; murder of Jews in, by the SS, 10; Communist rule in, after 1945, 11, 12; dissent in, 13, 14; Soviet military exercises in, 15; Communism crumbles in, 16, 17, 18; declares independence, 19; Soviet military assaults in, 20, 21; reaffirms separation from Soviet Union, 22; signs agreement with Poland, 23
Little Entente: a counterweight to Hitler's Germany, 1
Little Rock (Arkansas): desegregation in, 1, 2
Litvinov, Maxim: his nephew leads a protest, 1
Litvinov, Pavel: leads a demonstration in Red Square, 1
Liu Nianchun: allowed to leave China, 1
Liuzzo, Viola: killed, 1
Live Aid: seeks to help the starving, 1
Liverpool: a clerk from, 1; social unrest in, 2, 3; troops sent to China from, 4; a liner on its way from, sunk, 5
Ljubljana: Yugoslav troops advance towards, 1
Llanelli (South Wales): social unrest in, 1
Lloyd George, David: pledges to continue war (1916), 1; sends help to Italy (1917), 2; authorizes peace talks (1917), 3; and the German armistice (1918), 4; and the Versailles Treaty (1919), 5; withdraws troops from Russia, 6; and Ireland, 7, 8; and German reparations, 9; and the challenge of Mustafa Kemal, 10
Lloyd, Selwyn: and the Suez Crisis, 1
Locarno Treaties (1925): and western European
defence, 1; signed by Germany, 2
Lockerbie (Scotland): an airliner blown up over, 1
Lonardi, General: leads revolt, 1
London: and Labour, 1; rejoicing in, 2; revolutionaries meet in, 3; a report reaches, of terror in the Congo, 4; and aerial warfare, 5; social unrest in, 6; and an air mail experiment, 7; a warning in, about a European war, 8; cinema popular in, 9; and the coming of war in 1914, 10, 11, 12; a treason trial in, 13; and the 'entry into Petrograd', 14; and the Irish Treaty (1921), 15; and the fall of Lloyd George, 16; the first radio bulletin, transmitted from, 17; reparations conference in, 18; first television pictures transmitted from, 19; linked by telephone to San Francisco, 20; Soviet premises in, raided, 21; a report to, from Berlin, 22; Indian Round Table Conference in, 23; naval disarmament negotiations in, 24; a fast train from, 25; a Fascist march in, 26; and the 'bitter cup' of war, 27; Anti-Nazi Council meets in, 28; German aerial Blitz on, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33; and Allied war aims, 34; and war crimes, 35; and the 'London Poles', 36, 37; flying bombs hit, 38; a rocket bomb hits, 39; United Nations General Assembly meets in, 40; a Six-Power Pact signed in, about western Germany, 41; a meeting in, of the Consultative Council (for European unity), 42; a conference at, invites West Germany to join NATO, 43; Bolshoi Ballet in, 44; anti-nuclear protest in, 45; agreement on Cyprus reached in, 46; details on smoking and lung cancer published in, 47; a conference in, on dumping waste at sea, 48; direct rule from, in Northern Ireland, 49; a wedding guest in, returns home to a rebellion, 50; the Israeli ambassador in, severely wounded, 51; Live Aid in, 52; Rabin and Hussein meet secretly in, 53; information about Burundi massacre issued in, 54; an environment success announced in, 55; a founder of the Kosovo liberation movement in, urged to support negotiations, 56; an Iranian poet in exile in, 57
London Conference (1912): ends First Balkan War, 1
London Pact (1948): and the future of Germany, 1
'London Poles': 1, 2, 3
Londonderry: violence in, 1, 2, 3
Long Island: and an air mail experiment, 1
'Long March': Mao Tse-tung leads, 1, 2; veterans of, die, 3
Loos, Battle of (1915): 1
Lorentz, Pare: and a cinematographic masterpiece, 1
Lorraine: ironworks in, affected by occupation of Ruhr (1923), 1
Los Angeles: and Hollywood, 1; and civil rights, 2; a riot in, 3; Robert Kennedy assassinated in, 4
Los Angeles Times: an explosion destroys, 1
Lot (Polish airline): barred from flying to the United States, 1
Louvain: riots in, 1
Loyalty Boards: and McCarthyism, 1; and the loyalty oath, 2
Lübeck: bombed, 1
Lublin: Soviet army enters, 1
Ludendorff, General: and the First World War, 1, 2, 3; recommends peace, 4; calls for armistice, 5, 6; Hitler's ally, 7; a candidate for President, 8
Lueger, Karl: his electoral victory, 1
Lukashenko, President: granted dictatorial powers, 1
Lumumba, Patrice: seeks to unify Belgian Congo, 1; power struggle in, after his murder, 2
lung cancer: overtaken by tuberculosis, 1; its link with smoking confirmed, 2; a 'great epidemic', 3; in China, 4, 5
Lunik 1 (rocket): lands on moon, 2
Lusitania (ocean liner): fate of, 1
Lustiger, Cardinal: and an interfaith vigil, 1
Luther, Hans: a moderate Chancellor, 1
Luwum, Archbishop: protests and is killed, 1
Luxembourg: Hitler plans invasion of, 1, 2; Hitler conquers, 3; German leaders detained in, 4; and the future of Germany, 5; and European unity, 6; and NATO, 7; and the European Defence Community, 8; and a 'single market', 9; and the Common Market, 10
Luxemburg, Rosa: opposes seizure of power, 1
Luxor (Egypt): a massacre at, 1
Luzon (Philippines): uprising on, 1; Japanese conquest of, 2
Lynch, Jack: and a cross-border agreement, 1
lynching: 1, 2, 3
Lyon (France): reprisals in, 1, 2; an Allied bombing raid on, 3
Lyubchenko (a leading Communist): commits suicide, 1
MPLA: and the Angolan civil war, 1, 2 Ma'alot (Israel): a terrorist attack on, 3
MacArthur, General Douglas: in action (1918), 1; in the Philippines (1935), 2; returns to the Philippines (1945), 3; supervises the surrender of Japan, 4; and the Korean War, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
McCann, Joseph: shot dead, 1
McCarthy, Senator Eugene: opposes Vietnam War, 1, 2; competes for Democratic presidential nomination, 3
McCarthy, Senator Joseph: anti-Communist crusade of, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; dies, 6; 'his spirit lives', 7
McClellan, General: sacked (by Abraham Lincoln), 1
Macdonald, General: advances into Tibet, 1
McDonald, James G.: and refugees from Hitler, 1
MacDonald, Ramsay: and Labour, 1; supports German Peace Resolution (1917), 2; and Dominion Status for India, 3; and the formation of the National Government, 4
McDonald, Richard and Maurice: their hamburger cafés, 1
Macek, Dr: seeks Yugoslav compromise, 1
Macedonia: in being, introduction; discontent in, 2, 3; repression in, 4; continued fighting in, 5, 6, 7, 8; and the Second Balkan War, 9; Yugoslavia acquires, 10; a warning in, to the Kosovo Liberation Army, 11; Kosovar Albanians flee to, 12
Machel, Samora: seeks domestic peace in Mozambique, 1
McKinley, President William: assassinated, 1
Maclain (Muslim leader): rebels against France, 1
Macmillan, Harold: wounded (1915), 1; wounded (1916), 2; and Africa (1960), 3; asks for a translation (1960), 4
McNamara, Robert: and the nuclear 'second strike', 1; and anti-ballistic missile defence, 2
'Mad Mullah': in action against the British, 1
Madagascar: possible Jewish emigration to, 1; becomes independent, 2; species facing extinction in, 3
Maddox (destroyer): attacked, 1
Madrid: demonstrations in, 1; Primo de Rivera seizes power in, 2; strikes in, 3; martial law in, 4; fighting in, 5; bombed, 6; falls to Franco, 7; air pollution in, 8; European Conference on Security and Cooperation held in, 9; 'Concluding Document' signed in, 10, 11
Mafalda, Princess: killed, 1
Mafeking: relieved, 1
Maginot Line: construction of, 1; strengthened, 2; extended, 3
Maguire children: killed in Northern Ireland, 1
Magyars: in Austria-Hungary, 1
Mahmuti, Bardhyl: and Kosovo, 1
Maikop (Caucasus): Germans reach, 1
Major, John: becomes Prime Minister, 1; denounces anti-Gorbachev coup, 2; seeks compromise in Northern Ireland, 3, 4; sends peacekeeping force to Bosnia, 5; visits Bosnia, 6; defeated, 7
Makarios, Archbishop: at Bandung, 1; seeks union with Greece, 2; becomes President of Cyprus, 3; resists pressure from Greece, 4
Makhno, Nestor: leads anarchist army, 1
Malabar Coast (India): uprising in, 1
Malaga (Spain): captured, 1
Malan, Dr D. F.: justifies apartheid, 1
malaria: to be combatted, 1; progressive eradication of, 2; resurgence of, 3, 4
Malay States: transferred to Britain, 1
Malaya: Japanese invade, 1; Japanese overrun, 2; fate of soldiers in, 3; British rule challenged in, 4; given a new constitution, 5
Malaysia: new constitutions for, 1; a failed coup in, 2; refuses sanctuary to Boat People, 3; pollution in, 4
Malenkov, Georgi: and a possible meeting with Eisenhower, 1, 2
Maleter, Colonel: and the Hungarian Revolution, 1, 2, 3
Mali: joins Federation, 1
malnutrition: death of children from, 1
Malta: the Sultan sails to exile in, 1; a hijacked aircraft flown to, 2; Gorbachev and Bush meet off, 3
Malvinas, Las: the Argentine name for the Falkland Islands, 1
Manchester: social unrest in, 1; a computer experiment at, 2
Manchu dynasty: overthrown, 1
Manchukuo: established, 1
Manchuria: and Russia, 1, 2, 3, 4; plague in, 5; and China, 6; invaded by Japan (1931), 7; conquered by Japan, 8, 9; Soviet troops advance into (1945), 10; fighting in, 11; Nationalists lose (1948), 12; its fate, recalled by Truman, 13; and the Korean War, 14, 15, 16
Mandalay: bombed, 1
Mandates: established by the League of Nations, 1; conflict in (in Palestine), 2, 3; end (in Palestine), 4 Mandela, Nelson: challenges apartheid, 5; accused of treason, 6; imprisoned, 7; imprisoned for life, 8; a march on his prison, 9; the campaign for the release of, 10; released, 11; negotiates, 12; calls for an end to killings between blacks, 13, 14; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 15; sworn in as President, 16; a force for reconciliation, 17
Maniu, Julius: imprisoned for life, 1
Mannerheim Line (Finland): Soviets fail to overrun, 1; Soviets break, 2
Mao Khe: battle for, 1
Mao Tse-tung: his rule and demise, introduction; fights for the republic (1911), 2; works with Kuomintang (1926), 3; and Stalin's frown, 4; challenges Kuomintang, 5; guerrilla tactics of, 6; and the 'Long March', 7, 8; continued struggle of (1945–9), 9, 10; comes to power, 11; visits Stalin, 12; attends Bolshoi Ballet, 13; and a Sino-Soviet treaty, 14; and the Korean War, 15; his rule, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20; dies, 21; restrictions imposed by, swept away, 22
Maori troops: in action (1944), 1, 2
Maoris: and votes for women, 1
Maputo (Mozambique): a raid reaches, 1
Maralinga (Australia): nuclear tests at, 1
March of Dimes: combats polio, 1
'March on Rome': and Mussolini, 1; and Hitler, 2
Marconi, Guglielmo: his historic signal, 1
Marconi Building (London): the first radio bulletin transmitted from, 1
Marmara, Sea of: a naval objective, 1; seen, but not reached, 2; Allies control, 3
Marne, Battle of (1914): 1
Maronite Christians: swear revenge, 1; and the Lebanese civil war, 2, 3
Marrakech: Jews attacked in, 1
Mars: a 'gift' from, 1
Marshall, General George C.: in action (1918), 1; and the Marshall Plan (1947), 2, 3, 4
Marshall Plan: 1, 2, 3; replaced, 4; and the Peace Corps, 5
Marshall, Thurgood: opposes segregation, 1
Marshall-Cornwall, James: sees secret German rearmament, 1, 2
Marseille: an assassination at, 1
Martin, Rudolf, causes uproar, 1
Martinique: a volcanic eruption on, 1
Marx Brothers: star, 1
Marx, Wilhelm: a candidate for President, 1
Marxism-Leninism: 'arid and unattractive' (Clement Attlee), 1; and protests in Czechoslovakia, 2; and reforms in Poland, 3; rejects 'classless freedom of speech', 4; victorious in Angola, 5
Mary, Queen-Empress: in India, 1
Maryknoll Mission (in China): its bishop arrested, 1
Maryland: Camp David accords negotiated in, 1
Masaryk, Jan: falls to his death, 1; his successor, forced to resign, 2
Masaryk, President Thomas: his son murdered, 1; his portrait hoisted aloft, 2
Maskhadov, General: leads Chechen separatists, 1
Massachusetts: and the first black Senator, 1; Nixon fails to win, 2
Matignon Agreement (1936): and arbitration, 1
Matsu Island: threatened, 1
Matteotti, Giacomo: murdered, 1
Mau Mau: challenge British rule, 1, 2
Mauritania: joins Federation, 1; becomes independent, 2; Arabic made compulsory in, 3
Mauthausen (concentration camp): reached by American forces, 1
Max, of Baden, Prince: seeks to continue war (1918), 1; seeks armistice, 2, 3; resigns, 4
Maxim, Sir Hiram: and aerial warfare, 1
Mayaguez (American merchant ship): seized, 1
Mayo, Dr Charles: and the cruelty of forced confessions, 1
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz: elected Prime Minister, 1
measles: death of children from, 1
Mecca: the pilgrimage to, permitted in China, 1; a violent clash in, 2
Medal of Honour: awarded, in Korea, 1
Médecins sans Frontìres: and Ethiopia, 1
Medicaid: launched, 1; curs in, 2
Medicare: launched, 1; intended reform of, 2; cuts in, 3
Megantic (ocean liner): takes troops to China, 1
Mehmet V, Sultan of Turkey: in Constantinople, 1; becomes an exile, 2
Mein Kampf (My Struggle): published, 1; Jews and Marxists denounced in, 2; second volume of, published, 3
Meir, Golda: in Moscow, 1; appeals on behalf of Soviet Jews, 2; and the October War, 3
Mekong Delta (South Vietnam): overrun, 1
Melilla: Franco seizes, 1
Memel: at risk, 1; ceded to Germany, 2
Memphis (Tennessee): and organized crime, 1; and an assassination, 2
Mendès-France, Pierre: and Vietnam, 1; and Algeria, 2
Mengistu, Colonel: rules Ethiopia, 1
Mensheviks: come into being, 1; urge revolution, 2; gain power in Soviets (1917), 3; and a show trial (1930), 4
Menzhinski, Vyacheslav: heads secret police, 1
Meo people (Laos): military action against, 1
Mercury (space capsule): takes a man into space, 1
mercy: the 'luxury' of, 1
Mersey River (England): a warship sent to, 1
Meshed (Iran): demonstrations in, 1
Mesopotamia: Armenians deported to, 1; battles for, 2, 3; Britain receives Mandate for, 4; anti-British rebellion in, 5
Messines-Wytschaete Ridge: mines exploded under, 1
Metz: German soldiers mutiny at, 1
Mexico: Trotsky exiled in, 1; volunteers from, fight in Spain, 2; Trotsky murdered in, 3; Castro finds refuge in, 4; revolutionaries set sail from, 5; immigrants from, 6; a conference in, receives an appeal from Moscow, 7; and calls for Spain's expulsion, 8; and regional trade, 9
Mexico City: Lindbergh flies from Washington to, 1; an industrial disaster in, 2; a population conference in, 3; an earthquake in, 4
Michael, King (of Roumania): abdicates, 1
Michaelis, Dr Georg: seeks continuation of war, 1
Michelin, Marcel: killed, 1
Michigan: and the 1929 stock market crash, 1; and an anti-Vietnam War 'teach in', 2
Microsoft: its founder's wealth, 1
Midas II ('spy' satellite): launched, 1
Mid-Canada Line: radar warning stations of, 1
Midnapore: an assassination in, 1
Midway Island: naval battle for (1942), 1; Nixon meets Thieu at (1969), 2
Mikhailovic, Drazha: leads resistance, 1
Mikhoels, Solomon: murdered, 1, 2
Milan: anti-war demonstration in, 1; and Mussolini's 'March on Rome', 2; Jews in, deported to Auschwitz, 3; the dead Mussolini exhibited in, 4; attacks on Spanish property in, 5; pollution in, 6
Milea, General: his refusal, and his fate, 1
Miller, Arthur: defends freedom of expression, 1
Milliyet (newspaper): editor of, murdered, 1
Mills, W. Plumer: sets up protected zone in Nanking, 1
Milosevic, Slobodan: and Kosovo, 1, 2, 3, 4; and Bosnia, 5; and NATO's war against Serbia, 6, 7, 8; indicted as a war criminal, 9
Mindanao (Philippines): revolt on, 1
Mindszenty, Cardinal: arrested, 1; brought to trial, 2; under house arrest, 3; and the Hungarian revolution, 4, 5, 6
Minnesota: a Senator from, opposes Vietnam War, 1
Minority Rights Group: and Uganda, 1
Minsk: Polish forces advance towards, 1; a general strike in, 2
'Miracle of the Vistula': saves Warsaw (1920), 1
Missionaries of Charity: world-wide caring by, 1; murdered, in Yemen, 2
Mississippi: flooding on, 1; discrimination in, 2; an underground nuclear test in, 3
Mississippi Valley: Chinese nuclear fall-out reaches, 1
Missouri: discrimination in, 1; Truman flies to Washington from, 2; Truman's challenge to Eisenhower in, 3; bombers fly non-stop to Serbia from, 4
Missouri (battleship): Japan's surrender signed on, 1
Mitterand, President: receives Lech Walesa, 1; signs treaty with Boris Yeltsin, 2
Miyamura, Corporal: his bravery, in the Korean War, 1
Mladic, General: and war crimes, 1
Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals (MASH): in Korea, 1
Mobutu, Joseph: seizes power in the Congo, 1; repression by, 2
Mogadishu (Somalia): food aid reaches, 1; American Marines land at, 2; fighting in, 3
Mogador: Jews protected in, 1
Mohammed, the Prophet: denigrated, 1
Mohmands: rebel, 1
Möhne Dam: bombed, 1
Moi, Daniel arap: in Kenya, 1
Moldavia: unrest in, 1; ferment in, 2; becomes independent, as Moldova, 3; for subsequent index entries, see Moldova
Moldova (formerly Moldavia): establishes relations with Hungary, 1
Molina, Mario J.: warns about CFCs, 1
Molotov, Polina: imprisoned, 1
Molotov, Vyacheslav: a devoted Stalinist, 1; warns Tito, 2
'Molotov Cocktails': used in the Warsaw Ghetto revolt, 1; used in the Hungarian Revolution, 2
Moltke, General von: and the path to war (1913–14), 1, 2
Monaco: a royal exile in, 1
Mondorf (Luxembourg): German leaders held at, 1
Mongolia: breaks with Communism, 1
Mongols: in China, a minority, 1
'Monopoly': launched, 1
Monte Bello Island: nuclear test at, 1
Monte Cassino: struggle for, 1, 2, 3; advance northward from, 4
Montenegro: and the First Balkan War, 1; and the Second Balkan War, 2; and the First World War, 3, 4; a son of, calls for Communist liberalization, 5; Kosovar Albanians flee to, 6
Montevideo: a naval commander commits suicide in, 1
Montgomery (Alabama): civil rights unrest in, 1; and a Supreme Court decision, 2
Montreal: a liner on its way to, sunk, 1; a meeting in, on the ozone layer, 2
moon landing: by man, introduction; in prospect, 2; and walks in space, as a prelude, 3; and an unmanned lunar probe, 4; and the first landing, 5
Moplah uprising (India): 1
Moran, George ('Bugsy'): killed with his gang leaders, 1
Moravia: becomes part of Czechoslovakia, 1; becomes a German protectorate (with Bohemia), 2; Hitler determined not to lose, 3
Morel, E. D.: exposes terror, 1
Morenga (Herero leader): rebels, 1
Morocco: earthquake in, 1; secret Egyptian-Israeli talks in, 2
Morrison, Herbert: and the Soviet Union, 1
Morse, Senator: opposes war in Vietnam, 1
Moscow: protests in, 1, 2, 3; revolution in (1905), 4; revolution in (1917), 5; Russian anti-Bolsheviks advance towards (1919), 6, 7; Trotsky's confident boast in (1920), 8; authority of, asserted, 9; authority of, extended, 10; strikes in, 11; world revolution encouraged from, 12; an accusation against Stalin in, 13; a demotion in, 14; Yugoslav Communists 'in communication with' (1928), 15; statistics of peasant deaths published in, 16; Stalin's ten-hour speech in, 17; collectivization targets set by, 18; a show trial in, 19; 'agents from', accused, in Spain, 20; Communist refugee leaders in, become victims, 21; British negotiators in, on eve of Nazi-Soviet Pact, 22; order goes out from, for 'liquidation', 23; to be evacuated, 24; cut off from Leningrad, 25; battle for, 26; and Allied war aims, 27; and the future of Poland, 28; celebrates the linking of Soviet and American forces, 29; and the Marshall Plan, 30; a McDonalds in, 31; an arrest in, 32; Stalin and Mao meet in, 33; Stalin's seventieth birthday celebrations in, 34; Sino-Soviet Treaty signed in, 35; secret trials in (1952), 36; and Stalin's death, 37; a British ballet's visit to, cancelled, 38; within missile range, 39; planners in 40; and the range of a Polaris missile, 41; synagogues in, all but one closed down, 42; a warning from, during the Cuban missile crisis, 43; Khrushchev's unexpected return to, 44; Ben Bella and Castro visit, 45; unwelcome criticisms for, from Czechoslovakia, 46; and a 'hot line' talk between Kosygin and Johnson, 47; Dubçek summoned to, 48; Soviet-Czech talks in, 49; a demonstration in, against intervention in Czechoslovakia, 50; clandestine literature in, 51; nuclear non-proliferation treaty ratified in, 52; a Human Rights Committee formed in, 53; Nixon visits, 54, 55; a Lithuanian petition to, 56; Kissinger in, 57; Idi Amin feted by, 58; Sakharov forced to leave, 59; the extent of the authority of, 60; nuclear disarmament proposals taken to, 61; Helsinki Monitors in, 62; dominance of, resented in Estonia, 63; its secular control, resented in Islamic-oriented Soviet Central Asia, 64; orders from, cancel an orchestral visit to the United States, 65; Olympics in, to be boycotted, 66, 67; a Soviet-West German agreement signed in, 68; Jaruzelski summoned to, 69, 70; flights from Britain to, suspended, 71; Yeltsin appointed as a modernizer in, 72; Husak seeks reassurance in, 73; a May Day parade in, 74; a modernizer loses power in, 75; rejects Armenian demands in Nagorno-Karabakh, 76; the Nineteenth Communist Party Congress in, 77; Ceausescu visits, 78; the rehabilitation of Stalin's victims announced in, 79; Gorbachev flies to East Germany from, 80; and the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe, 81; a demonstration in, supports Lithuanian independence, 82; Soviet violence against Lithuania, denounced in, 83; an attempt to seize power in, 84; Supreme Soviet meets in, and dissolves itself, 85; agreement in, to withdraw troops from former Baltic republics, 86; a Chechen agreement signed in, 87; Yeltsin sworn in as President in, 88; Milosevic summoned to, 89; mothers in, call for an end to the war in Chechenya, 90
Moscow Radio: and the Hungarian Revolution, 1
Moscow University: a professor at, satirizes Soviet society, 1; fax machines at, dismantled each evening, 2
Moses: and a question of opinion polls, 1
Mosley, Sir Oswald: and the British Union of Fascists, 1
motor car: its victims, introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; and war, 14; mass production of, 15, 16; and the Volkswagen, 17; and 'Defence Highways' in the United States, 18; to be sold to China by the United States, 19
Mount Pelée: erupts, 1
Mount Suribachi: Stars and Stripes raised on, 1
Mountbatten, Earl: killed by the IRA, 1
Mozambique: raids into, 1, 2; famine in, 3; debt reduction for, 4
Mozart: 'bourgeois', 1
Mubarak, Hosni: Clinton holds talks with, 1
Mudania: Anglo-Turkish negotiations at, 1
Mugabe, Robert: leads ZANU, 1
Muhammad Daud: rules, then assassinated, 1
Mujaheddin (Muslim guerrillas): the war against, in Afghanistan, 1, 2
Mujib ur-Rahman, Sheikh: and the emergence of Bangladesh, 1; declares one-Party State (January) and murdered (August), 2
Mukden (Manchuria): abandoned, 1; attacked, 2
Mukti Bahini (freedom fighters): trained by India, 1
Müller, Hermann: suppresses Ruhr revolutionaries, 1; resigns, 2
Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV): a nuclear weapon delivery system, 1
Munich: revolution in (1918), 1, 2; Hitler active in, 3, 4; Hitler attempts to seize power in (1923), 5; right- and left-wing factions fight in, 6; Hitler awaits trial for failed putsch in, 7; a concentration camp near, 8; the fate of the Sudetenland decided at, 9; British bomb, 10, 11; American troops enter, 12; seventeen elderly Jews in, killed (1970), 13
Munich Conference (1938): and the German annexation of the Sudetenland, 1
Munk, Kaj: executed, 1
Mürzsteg: a meeting at, 1
Musaddiq, Dr: challenges Britain and the United States, 1
Muslim-Bosnian Republic: meets in Sarajevo (1994), 1
Muslim-Croat Federation: established (1994), 1
Muslims: in Afghanistan, 1, 2, 3, 4; in Algeria, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 15, 16; in British India, 17, 18, 19, 20; 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27; in Bulgaria, 28; in Chad, 29, 30; in Central Asia, 31; in China, 32, 33; in East Bengal, 34; in Egypt, 35; in Hyderabad, 36; in Indonesia, 37; in Iraq, 38; in Iran, 39, 40, 41, 42; in Lebanon, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48; in Libya, 49, 50, 51; in Macedonia, 52, 53, 54; in Malaysia, 55; in Mauritania, 56, 57; in French and Spanish Morocco, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64; in Nigeria, 65; in Pakistan, 66, 67; in Palestine, 68; in post-1991 Russia, 69; in Spanish Morocco, 70; in the Philippines, 71; in Saudi Arabia, 72, 73; in Somaliland, 74; in the Soviet Union, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83; in Sudan, 84, 85, 86, 87; in Syria, 88; in Turkey, 89, 90, 91; in West Africa, 92; and an inter-faith vigil, 93
Mussolini, Benito: opposes war with Turkey, 1; leads Fascist movement, 2; comes to power, 3; and Hitler's attempt to seize power in Munich, 4; in power, 5, 6, 7; and 'the eagles of war', 8; imperial campaigns of, 9; and Hitler's conditions for entering government, 10; and Abyssinia, 11, 12; and the Spanish Civil War, 13; and the Munich Conference, 14; conquers Albania, 15; threatens France, 16; meets Hitler, 17; invades Greece, 18; dismissed, 19; flown to see Hitler, 20; visits Hitler at Rastenburg, 21; executed, 22; and a threat in Tel Aviv, 23 Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk): at Gallipoli, 24; challenges Allies (1920–22), 25, 26; refuses to recognize Soviet Union, 27; his reforms, 28, 29; and a parallel with the Shah of Iran, 30
Mutla Ridge (Kuwait): and the Gulf War, 1
Mutual Security Agency: replaces Marshall Plan, 1
Muzaffarpur (India): murders in, 1
My Lai (South Vietnam): an atrocity at, 1, 2
NATO: see index entry North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Nablus: conciliation in, 1
Nagasaki: and the atom bomb, introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5
Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan): unrest in, 1, 2; killings in, 3, 4
Nagy, Imre: and the Hungarian revolution (1956), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; and a Polish dissident, 6
Nagykanizsa (Hungary): oil fields of, overrun, 1
Nairobi: a killing near, 1; an international meeting in, 2
Namibia (formerly South-West Africa): administered by South Africa, 1; violence in, 2
Nanking: Manchu troops defeated in, 1; British traders murdered at, 2; Kuomintang government established at, 3; increased authority of, 4; protests by, ignored, 5; Japanese conquest of, 6
Nansen, Dr Fridtjof: on famine relief in Russia, 1
Nantes: German reprisals in, 1
napalm bomb: used in the Philippines, 1; used in Vietnam, 2, 3, 4, 5; used in Cuba, 6; used in Afghanistan, 7
Naples: and Mussolini's 'March on Rome', 1
Narbonne: riots in, 1
Narvik: a proposed Allied landing at, 1; the struggle for, 2, 3
Nashville: and 'country' music, 1
Nasser, Colonel: comes to power in Egypt, 1; made a Hero of the Soviet Union, 2; and the Six-Day War, 3
Natal: attacked, 1; Zulu revolt in, 2; an advance from, 3; unrest in, 4
National Archives (Washington DC): opened, 1
National Broadcasting Company (United States): and Vietnam, 1
National Defense Preparedness Office (United States): established, 1
National Government (Britain): formed, 1
National Guard (United States): and the Depression, 1; and de-segregation, 2, 3; and a student protest, 4; and the Kent State killings, 5
National Health Service (Britain): established, 1; evolves, 2, 3
National Islamic Front (Sudan): governs, 1
National Salvation Front (Roumania): founded, 1; a member of, becomes President, 2
National Security Council (United States): and the Vietnam War, 1
National Socialist Workers' Party (Germany): see index entry Nazi Party
National Youth Administration (United States): and the New Deal, 1
Nautilus (submarine): commissioned, 1; sails under Polar ice cap, 2
'Naval Holiday': proposed, 1
Navarre, General: in Vietnam, 1
Nazi Party: its early years, 1; and Hitler's rise to power, 2; banned, 3; rebuilt, 4, 5; its path to power, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; and the early years of the Hitler regime, 13, 14, 15; and a crusade against 'Bolshevism', 16; its anthem, heard in Austria, 17; a member of, rescues Chinese in Nanking, 18; and Kristallnacht, 19; two non-members of, lead West Germany, 20
Nazi-Soviet Pact: signed (23 August 1939), 1; and the partition of Poland (September-October 1939), 2; and a post-war Communist purge, 3; secret clauses of, published (1988), 4; the fiftieth anniversary of, 5
Neave, Airey: killed by an IRA bomb, 1
Nebraska: violence in, 1
Negev Desert (Israel): American-built airfields in, 1
Negrin, Dr Juan: heads Spanish republican government, 1; flees into exile, 2
Neguib, General: takes power in Egypt, 1, 2
Nehru, Jawaharlal: pledges to end British rule, 1; imprisoned, 2; seeks united India, 3; accepts partition, 4; proposes referendum for Kashmir, 5; and Hyderabad, 6; opposes Soviet H-bomb tests, 7; his daughter as Prime Minister, 8
Nepal: earthquake in, 1; soldiers from, in action, 2
Netanyahu, Benjamin: a future Prime Minister of Israel, 1; becomes Prime Minister, 2; and the Palestinian Authority, 3; replaced by Ehud Barak, 4
Netanyahu, Yonatan: killed during the Entebbe rescue, 1
Neuilly, Treaty of: and Bulgaria, 1
Neutrality Law: strengthened, 1
Neuve Chapelle, Battle of (1915): 1, 2
Nevada: an atomic bomb test in, 1, 2; further nuclear tests in, 3
New Deal: and the economic recovery of the United States, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and Canada, 7
New Economic Policy (NEP): in Russia, 1, 2, 3
New Guinea: an invasion fleet on way to, intercepted, 1; Japanese garrison on, surrenders, 2; Japanese attempt to re-inforce, fails, 3; fate of an American prisoner of war on, 4; Japanese on, refuse to surrender, 5
New Hampshire (United States): an opponent of the Vietnam War in, 1
New Hebrides (Pacific): revolt in, 1
New Mexico (United States): protected wilderness in, 1; an atomic bomb test in, 2; a Korean War hero from, 3
New York City: and the year 1903, 1; first radio broadcast from 2; and a fountain-pen saga, 3; and a pioneering flight, 4; strikes in, 5; a workshop fire in, 6; Titanic on way to, 7; and a naval warning, 8; a Ku Klux Klan march in, 9; Fascist and anti-Fascist marches in, 10; linked by telephone to San Francisco, 11; first flight to Paris from, 12; and the 1929 stock market crash, 13, 14; and organized crime, 15; an anti-Nazi rally in, 16; first flight to Berlin from, 17; celebrations in, as Soviet and American troops cut Germany in two, 18; James Byrnes speaks in, 19; Vyshinsky's explanation in, 20; an asylum seeker speaks about Poland in, 21; Court of Appeals in, ends 'loyalty' oaths, 22; non-stop jet flights from London and Paris to, 23; Khrushchev bangs his shoe in, 24; Ben Bella in, 25; and civil rights, 26; two new musicals in (1964), 27; an anti-Vietnam War suicide in, 28; urban renewal in, 29; Archbishop of, speaks of a war for 'civilization', 30; daily anti-Vietnam War marches in, 31; a vote in, admits China to the United Nations, 32; lead poisoning in, 33; John Lennon murdered in, 34; a Soviet mission in, closed down, 35; record day's trading on Stock Exchange in (1982), 36; Gorbachev flies to Armenia from, 37
New York Herald Tribune: denounces German anti-Semitism (1935), 1; and the first American space satellite (1958), 2
New York State Minimum Wage Law: struck down, 1
New York Stock Exchange: record day's trading on (1982), 1
New York Times: and Disneyland, 1; and the 'Pentagon Papers', 2; and 'Stone Age barbarism', 3
New Zealand: and votes for women, 1; receives German Mandates, 2; and Southern Ireland, 3; and India, 4; and the Second World War, 5, 6, 7; and the Korean War, 8, 9; and an American H-bomb test, 10; and a French nuclear test, 11
Newcastle: a fast train to, 1
Newfoundland: a signal reaches, 1; troops from, in action (1916), 2; and the first non-stop flight to Ireland, 3; Churchill and Roosevelt meet off, 4
Newport News (Virginia): an atomic-powered aircraft carrier launched from, 1
Nicaragua: and war debts to the United States, 1; United States intervention in, 2; a failed rebellion in, 3; Contra rebels in, 4, 5; Sandanista government in, 6; civil war in, 7
Nicholas II, Tsar: and Macedonia, 1; and the 1905 revolution, 2, 3; and reform, 4; closes the Duma, 5, 6; witnesses an assassination, 7; and the coming of war (1914), 8; and the First World War, 9, 10; and the revolutions (of 1917), 11; abdicates, 12; his identity established by DNA, 13
nickelodeon: introduced, 1
Nicosia (Cyprus): divided, 1
Niemen River: control of, 1
Niemöller, Pastor: his act of defiance, 1; imprisoned, 2; liberated, 3
Niger: becomes independent, 1; gains revenue, 2
Nigeria: Britain in, 1, 2; unrest in, 3; British rule challenged in, 4; becomes independent, 5; civil war in, 6; technical aid to, 7; returns to civilian rule, 8; return to military rule in, 9
Night at the Opera (film): its premiere, 1
'Night of the Long Knives' (1934): assassinations during, 1
Nikolaev, Leonid: an assassin, 1
Nikolayev: wartime strike at (1916), 1
Nile Delta: military targets in, bombed, 1
Nineteen Eighty-Four (George Orwell): and 'Big Brother', 1; and a totalitarian world order, 2
Nixon, Richard M.: attacks Truman, 1; willing to send ground forces to Vietnam, 2; visits Moscow, 3, 4, 5; his unsuccessful Presidential bid, 6; elected President, 7; and the Vietnam War, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15; and biological warfare, 16; and Cambodia, 17, 18; and China, 19, 20; calls for war on cancer, 21; re-elected President, 22; and the Watergate 'cover-up', 23, 24; resigns, 25
Nizam of Hyderabad: and India's first war, 1
Nizhni-Novgorod: an assassination in, 1; for subsequent index entries see Gorky
Nkata Bay (Nyasaland): protesters killed in, 1
Nkomo, Joshua: leads ZAPU, 1, 2
Nkrumah, Kwame: wins one-Party elections, 1; overthrown, 2
No-fly Zone (Bosnia): enforced by NATO, 1
No-fly Zone (Iraq): and a continuous conflict, 1
No-Man's-Land: football in, 1
Nobel, Alfred: his benefaction, 1
Nobel Prize: and the Hydrogen bomb, introduction; the first awards of (1901), 2; and malaria, 3; and famine relief in Russia, 4; and the 'outlawry of war', 5; won by a German pacifist (1936), 6; winners of, protest against Hydrogen Bomb, 7; awarders of, receive a nuclear test protest, 8; a winner of, denounced in the Soviet Union, 9; a posthumous winner of, 10; and cholesterol, 11; Solzhenitsyn awarded, 12; Sakharov suggested for, 13; awarded to Begin and Sadat, 14; awarded to Mother Teresa, 15; awarded to Lech Walesa, 16; awarded to Jaroslav Seifert, 17; awarded to Desmond Tutu, 18; awarded to Gorbachev, 19; awarded to Mandela and De Klerk, 20; awarded to Arafat, Peres and Rabin, 21; awarded to the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 22; awarded to John Hume and David Trimble, 23; awarded to Aung San Suu Kyi, 24
Non-Aligned Nations: gather, at Bandung (1955), 1; denounce Soviet H-bomb testing (1961), 2
Normandy Landings (6 June 1944): 1, 2, 3
North Africa: battles in (1942–3), 1, 2; Jews from, emigrate to Israel (1948), 3
North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): signed, 1
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): established, 1; signs defence agreement with the United States, 2; a Supreme Commander of, becomes President of the United States, 3; West Germany joins, 4, 5; France withdraws military units from, 6; and West Germany's 'self-defence', 7; sets up unified air defence command, 8; and nuclear weapons, 9; aids Greece and Turkey, 10; and detente, 11; Thatcher critical of, 12; and Bosnia, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17; and the Russia-NATO Founding Act, 18; and Kosovo, 19, 20, 21; 'enlargement' of, 22, 23; makes war on Serbia, 24, 25
North Borneo: Japanese reprisals in, 1
North Caucasus: anti-Communist revolt in (1920), 1; rebels crushed in, 2; Muslim separatists challenge Russia in (1999), 3
North Korea: and the Cold War, 1; attacks South Korea, 2; and the Korean War, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; and the East-West divide, 12; and Poland, 13; rigid Communist rule in, 14; and the United States, 15; and South Korea, 16; a spy for, released by South Korea after forty-four years, 17; famine in, 18
North Polar Seas: pollution in, 1
North Pole: a nuclear-powered submarine passes under, 1
North Sea: and Chernobyl, 1
North Vietnam: a military anniversary in, 1; Hanoi proclaimed capital of, 2; Communist rule in, 3; and the United States, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17; and China, 18, 19; and the Soviet Union, 20; overruns South Vietnam, 21; for subsequent index entries see: Vietnam (the 'Unified State')
'North-South' divide: a warning about, 1
North-West Frontier Province (India): revolt in, 1
Northern Ireland: established, 1; and the Irish Free State, 2; violent clashes in, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; and the European Court of Human Rights, 15; and Libya, 16; the search for peace in, 17, 18, 19, 20
Northern Rhodesia: British rule maintained in, 1; for subsequent index entries see Zambia
Norway: an attempted naval initiative off (1916), 1; Allied plans to land at (1940), 2; Hitler forestalls British and French in, 3; surrenders, 4; resistance in, 5; the Tirpitz sunk in, 6; Hitler determined not to lose, 7; and NATO, 8; a broadcast from, against nuclear tests, 9; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 10; and Chernobyl, 11; and NATO's war against Serbia, 12
Norwegian language: banned, 1
Norwich: bombed, 1
Noske, Gustav: crushes anti-Government forces, 1
Notre Dame (Paris): a vigil in, 1
Nova Misao (magazine): calls for liberalization in, 1
'November criminals': blamed for Germany's 1918 defeat, 1
Novotny, Antonin: supports collectivization, 1; opposes anti-Soviet demonstrators, 2
Novy Mir (journal): its editor, dismissed, 1
Nowa Huta (Poland): riots at, 1
nuclear disarmament: calls for, 1, 2; negotiations for, 3; and the Test Ban Treaty (1963), 4; concern at the failure of, 5; and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), 6, 7; and the sea bed, 8; and Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), 9; and the Vladivostok summit, 10; and SALT II, 11, 12, 13, 14; and START, 15, 16, 17; and verification, 18, 19; and Gorbachev, 20, 21, 22, 23; and Yeltsin, 24, 25; and Ukraine, 26; a culmination of, in Geneva, 27
Nuremberg: Nazi Party rally at, 1; Hitler speaks of 'racial heredity' at, 2; Hitler reviews Hitler Youth in, 3; crusade against 'Bolshevism' launched in, 4; the 'Eternal Jew' exhibition in, 5; Goering denounces Czechs, 'Moscow' and 'the Jew devil' in, 6; Hitler denounces Czech 'oppression' in, 7; bombed, 8; International Military Tribunal in, 9
Nuremberg Laws (1935): discriminate against Jews, 1; an Italian version of, discriminate against blacks, 2; Czechoslovakia rejects, 3; Hitler imposes (on Bohemia and Moravia), 4
Nureyev, Rudolf: defects, 1; allowed to return, 2
Nyasaland: anti-British demonstrations in, 1; racial discrimination to end in, 2
OAS (Organization de L'Armée Secrète): violence of, in Algeria, 1
Obote, Milton: rules Uganda, 1, 2
O'Connor, William: and organized crime, 1
October War (1973): Egypt and Syria against Israel, 1
Oder River: control of, 1
Odessa: fighting in, 1; bombarded, 2; Cossack troops in, 3, 4; pogrom in, 5; anti-war riots in, 6; and the range of a Polaris missile, 7; and the range of a Soviet warplane, 8
Ogaden region (Ethiopia): overrun by Ethiopia, 1
Ohio: laser surgery in, 1; heart bypass surgery in, 2; Kent State killings in, 3; a Bosnian agreement signed in, 4
Ohrdruf: a concentration camp, reached by American troops (1945), 1
oil: discovered in Texas, 1; and a military objective (1917), 2; and Abyssinia, 3; and a Roumanian pledge to Germany, 4; and Hitler's decision to invade Greece, 5; and Germany's advance into Egypt and the Caucasus, 6, 7; and the defection of Roumania, 8; and the advance into Hungary, 9; Soviets acquire, from Roumania, 10; in Iran, 11; on its way to Cuba, 12; and Southern Rhodesia, 13; and the Six-Day War, 14; and clumping at sea, 15; artificially high prices of, 16; discovered, in India, 17; and civil unrest in Iran, 18; and China's trade agreement with Japan, 19; and the price of uranium, 20; and the Iranian hostage crisis, 21; and an oil spill, 22; and sanctions against Iraq, 23; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 24; and the Gulf War, 25, 26; and a Ukrainian-Iranian agreement, 27; and the bombing of oil refineries in Grozny, 28
Okinawa: American troops land on, 1; a Japanese suicide flying bomb off, 2; the final fighting on, 3; American troops on, and the Korean War, 4
Oklahoma: within missile range of Cuba, 1
Oldenburg: Nazi electoral success in, 1
Olympic Games: in Paris (1900), 1; in St Louis (1904), 2; in Stockholm (1912), 3; in Antwerp (1920), 4; in Berlin (1936), 5; in Tokyo (1964), 6; in Moscow (1980), 7, 8; South Africa readmitted to, 9; in Barcelona (1992), 10
Omagh (Northern Ireland): a murderous bomb in, 1
Omaha (Nebraska): violence in, 1
Operation Desert Storm: against Iraq, 1
Operation Moses: and Ethiopian Jews, 1
opinion polls: and the Vietnam War, 1; and civil rights, 2
Oporto: anti-government demonstration in, 1
Oradour-sur-Glane: a reprisal in, 1
Oran: Britain opens fire on France at, 1; independence and violence in, 2 Orange Free State: goes to war, 3
Oregon: a Senator from, opposes war in Vietnam, 1
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS): appeals to Reagan, 1
Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC): 1
Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE): held, in Madrid, 1, 2; troops of, sent to Kosovo, 3
Oriente Province (Cuba): a failed coup in, 1
Orléansville (Algeria): earthquake at, 1
Orlov, Dr Yuri: arrested, 1; allowed to emigrate, 2
Orwell, George: and 'Big Brother', 1; and a totalitarian world order, 2
Oslo: Germans occupy, 1; Israel-PLO talks in, 2; Yeltsin in, mistakenly believes he is in Helsinki, 3
Oslo Accords: between Israel and the PLO, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Oslo Fjord: German warships enter, 1
Ossietzky, Carl von: wins Nobel Peace Prize, 1
Ostrava (Czechoslovakia): an 'illegal' meeting in, 1; the world's 6,000 millionth person born in, 2
Ottawa: an anti-personnel mine treaty signed in, 1, 2, 3, 4
Ottoman Empire: discontent in, 1, 2, 3; Armenians in, 4, 5, 6, 7; British conflict with, 8; and Palestine, 9; Young Turk revolution in, 10, 11, 12; and Albania, 13; loses Libya to Italy, 14, 15; loses Dodecanese to Italy, 16; and the First Balkan War, 17, 18; and the Second Balkan War, 19; and the First World War, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25; obtains armistice (1918), 26; for subsequent index entries, see: Turkey
Our Common Future (report): and the environment, 1
Oviedo (Spain): miners seize, 1
Ovington, Earle: and an air mail experiment, 1
Oxford University: and a Nobel Prize, 1
ozone layer: a 'hole' in, 1, 2; and the Vienna Convention, 3
Pacific Ocean: and the Panama Canal, 1; war in, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; H-Bomb tests in, 8; a space capsule lands safely in, 9; Soviet rule from the Baltic to, 10
Paderewski, Ignace: his body returned to Poland, 1
Page, Walter: and the coming of war in 1914, 1; and 'this vast wreck' (Europe), 2
Painlevé, Paul: and a Muslim revolt in Morocco, 1
Pakistan: born of partition, 1; and Kashmir, 2, 3; becomes an 'Islamic Republic', 4; breaks up into West and East, 5; floods in, 6; refugees from Afghanistan in, 7, 8; Sikhs infiltrate from, 9; a peacekeeping force from, in Somalia, 10, 11; becomes a nuclear power, 12, 13, 14; Muslim extremists in, 15; its large army, 16
Palach, Jan: set fire to himself, 1
Palatnik, Raisa: sentenced to labour camp, 1
Palawan Island: an attack on (1910), 1
Palermo: American troops enter, 1
Palestine: Jews emigrate to, 1; the first kibbutz in, 2; promise of a Jewish National Home in, 3, 4; becomes a British Mandate, 5; the Armenian Patriarchate transferred to, 6; Arab-Jewish conflict in, 7, 8, 9; Jewish refugees in, 10; Jews from, and the Spanish Civil War, 11; restrictions on Jewish immigration to, 12; Jews from, in action in Italy, 13; Jews seek to enter (after 1945), 14; proposed partition of (1947), 15; partitioned (1948), 16; for subsequent index entries see Israel and Arab-Israel conflict
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): active in the Middle East and beyond, 1, 2; in Lebanon, 3; in Turkey, 4; shells towns in northern Israel, 5; leaves Beirut, 6; claims responsibility for acts of terror, 7; remnants of, in Lebanon, 8; hijackings and acts of terror by, 9; Israel negotiates with, 10, 11, 12, 13
Palestinian Authority: established (1994), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Palestinians: emerge as a political force, 1, 2; in Lebanon, 3, 4; in prison in Israel, 5, 6, 7, 8; on the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
Pan-African Congress: banned, 1
Pan-American Airways (Pan Am): and jet travel, 1; and the Lockerbie bomb, 2
Pan-Malayan Islamic Party: crushed, 1
Panama: and the United States, 1, 2; a failed rebellion in, 3; the Shah finds refuge in, 4
Panama Canal: United States wartime control of, acquired by treaty, 1
Panchen Lama: proclaimed spiritual leader, 1
pandas: endangered, 1
Panmunjom: cease-fire talks in, 1, 2; armistice agreement signed in, 3 Papen, Count Franz von: becomes Chancellor, 4; issues Terror Emergency Decree, 5; invites Hitler to join government, 6, 7, 8; resigns, 9
paper cup: introduced, 1
parachute: first use of, 1
Paraguay: a guerrilla incursion into, 1
Paris: and the Olympics, 1; fire in, 2; and the Schlieffen Plan, 3, 4; parliamentary unrest in, 5; rumours of war in, 6; horse-drawn omnibuses in, withdrawn, 7; mobilization orders go out from, 8; Germans fail to reach (1914), 9; Germans seek to reach (1918), 10, 11; Peace Conference at (1919–20), 12, 13; the Turkish treaty signed in (1920), 14; reparations negotiations in, 15; Locarno Treaty negotiations in, 16; Franco-Spanish frontier of Morocco negotiated in, 17; Surrealism and 'Art Deco' in, 18; first non-stop flight from New York to, 19; and 'enigmatic times', 20; violent clashes in, 21; a secret pact leaked in, 22; Guernica painted in, 23; an assassination in (1938), 24; German troops enter (1940), 25; a bombing raid near (1943), 26; resistance and reprisals in, 27; a bombing raid on (1944), 28; uprising in, 29; liberated, 30; Ho Chi Minh negotiates in, 31; Marshall Plan negotiations in, 32; Bao Dai visits, 33; Vietnam proposals in, 34; Tunisian independence talks in, 35; secret French-British-Israeli talks in, 36, 37; talks on Algeria in, 38; a non-stop jet flight to New York from, 39; troops loyal to, in Algiers, 40; a Soviet defector in, 41; a car bomb in, 42; Ayatollah Khomeini in exile in, 43, 44; Solzhenitsyn published in, 45; American-Vietnamese negotiations in, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51; an aircraft on its way to, hijacked, 52; Lech Walesa received with honours in, 53; pollution in, 54; Yeltsin and Mitterand sign treaty in, 55; chemical weapons convention signed in, 56; Dayton Peace Treaty, for Bosnia, signed in, 57; a vigil in, after Algerian killings, 58; the Russia-NATO Founding Act signed in, 59; a Democratic Republic of Congo ceasefire in, 60
Paris-Madrid aeroplane race: an accident at start of, 1
Paris Note (1922): and Turkish claims to Eastern Thrace, 1, 2
Paris Peace Conference (1919–20): 1, 2, 3
Parks, Rosa: arrested, 1
partisans (in the Second World War): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Passchendaele: battle for (1917), 1, 2; ground gained, evacuated (1918), 3; retaken (1918), 4
Passover: rocket attacks during, in Israel, 1
Pasternak, Boris: his novel banned, 1; wins Nobel Prize, 2; 'kinder times will come', 3
Patel, V. P.: and Indian nationalism, 1; imprisoned, 2
Pathan tribesmen: in Pakistan, 1
Pathet Lao: challenge the government of Laos, 1; take power, 2
Patocka, Professor Jan: visited, then interrogated, 1
Paton, Alan: an opponent of apartheid, 1
Patriot missiles: defend Israel, 1
Patriotic Front (Southern Rhodesia): challenges white rule in Southern Rhodesia, 1
Patton, George S.: in action (1918), 1
Paul VI, Pope: pleads for convicted Basques, 1
Paul, Prince (of Yugoslavia): appointed Regent, 1; bows to German pressure, 2
Paulus, General von: at Stalingrad, 1, 2
Peace Corps: an American initiative, 1
Peace Now: in Israel, 1, 2
Peace Pact (1928): outlaws war, 1; comes into force (1929) as the Kellogg-Briand Pact, 2; and a Nobel Peace Prize, 3
Peace People: urge an end to killings, 1
Peace Resolution (Berlin, 1917): 1
peacekeepers: in Congo, 1; in Lebanon, 2, 3; in Sri Lanka, 4; in Bosnia, 5, 6, 7; in Somalia, 8, 9, 10, 11; in Rwanda, 12, 13; in Kosovo, 14, 15, 16; in Sierra Leone, 17
Pearl Harbor: attacked, 1; attacking aircraft carriers at, sunk, 2; a nuclear-powered submarine sails from, 3
Peasants' Self-Defence Committee: established, in Poland, 1
Peking: and the Boxer rebellion, 1, 2; and the Boxer Indemnity, 3; a warlord rules, 4; evacuation of (1937), 5; Communists come to power in, 6; Christian churches shut down in, 7; anti-Western demonstrations in, 8; placed under military rule, 9; a Red Guard anniversary in, 10; Kissinger visits, 11; Nixon visits, 12; Mao Tse-tung's death in, 13; pro-democracy demonstrations in, 14; for subsequent index entries see Beijing
Peking Review: denounces 'bourgeois' music, 1
Peking University: Mao Tse-tung's failed intervention in, 1; Clinton speaks about human rights at, 2
Pelican Island: a wildlife refuge at, 1
Pennsylvania: and steel, 1; a lynching in, 2
Pentagon (Washington): an anti-Vietnam War suicide at, 1; and a possible 'space bomb', 2; asked to find 'alternative weapons' to landmines, 3
Pentagon Papers: and the Vietnam War, 1
People's Army: Hitler establishes (1944), 1
People's Liberation Army (Eritrea): fights against Ethiopia, 1
People's Police (in East Berlin): join demonstrators, 1
People's Progressive Party (British Guiana): victorious, 1
People's Republic of China: see index entry China
People's Revolutionary Government: comes to power, in Grenada, 1
Percival, General: witnesses surrender of Japan, 1
Peres, Shimon: seeks accommodation with Palestinians, 1; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 2; becomes Prime Minister, 3; negotiates with Arafat, 4; threatened, 5; defeated, 6
'perestroika': one of Gorbachev's reforms, 1, 2; rejected by Roumania, 3; a Bulgarian club for, closed down, 4; overtaken, 5
Permanent Court of Arbitration (The Hague): 1
Permanent Court of International Justice (The Hague): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; Milosevic handed over to, 6
Peron, President: his rule, and overthrow, 1
Perpignan: riots in, 1
Persia: see index entry Iran
Persian Gulf: a warship in, 1; conflict in (1988), 2; and the Gulf War (1991), 3; and a No-fly Zone (1992–), 4
Persil detergent: invented, 1
Peru: and the Spanish Civil War, 1; an earthquake in, 2; flooding in, 3
Pescadores Islands: bombarded, 1
Peshawar: violence in, 1
Petacci, Clara: executed (with Mussolini), 1; and a threat, 2
Pétain, General (later Marshal): and Verdun, 1; and a deceptive strategy, 2; fights rebels in Morocco, 3; becomes Prime Minister of France, 4
Peter Karageorgevitch: becomes King, 1
Peter the Great: removed from the curriculum, 1
Petkov, Nikola: executed, 1
Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg): and the revolutions of 1917, 1; warmaking efforts in, 2; Bolsheviks fail to seize power in, 3; Bolsheviks renew activities in, 4; and a Zionist mission, 5; Bolsheviks seize power in, 6; anti-Bolshevik Russians approach, 7; strikes in, 8; executions in, 9; for subsequent index entries, see Leningrad
Petrograd Soviet: established, 1; agrees to 'defensive' war, 2; a member of, sentenced to death, 3
Pforzheim: bombed, 1
Philadelphia: and the invention of 'Monopoly', 1; Live Aid in, 2
Philippeville: massacre in, 1
Philippines: and the United States, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; Japan attacks, 8; Japan overruns, 9, 10; resistance in, 11; evacuation of, 12; a naval battle off, 13; a casualty in, 14; liberated, 15; granted independence, 16; and the Korean War, 17, 18; and the Vietnam War, 19; a ferry disaster in, 20; a nun from, murdered in Yemen, 21
Phnom Penh (Cambodia): threatened, 1, 2; captured, 3, 4
Picasso, Pablo: paints Guernica, 1
Pilsudski, Marshal: rules Poland, 1
Pinochet, General: seizes power in Chile, 1; his regime condemned, 2; his dictatorship challenged, 3
Pinsk: an assassination in, 1
Piquet, Henri: and an air mail experiment, 1
Pittsburgh: a cinema fire in, 1
Pius XI, Pope: and Hitler, 1, 2
plague: epidemic outbreaks of, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; on the wane, 7
Plehve, Vyacheslav: and the Jews, 1; assassinated, 2
Ploesti: its oil, denied to Germany, 1
Plzen (Pilsen): rioting in, 1
pneumonia: death of children from, 1; Yeltsin suffers from, 2
Poincaré, Raymond: and German reparations, 1; and the Chanak crisis, 2; and the French occupation of the Ruhr, 3
Pol Pot: his reign of terror, 1, 2, 3
Polaris missile: test fired, 1; to be based in Britain, 2; could reach inside Soviet Union, 3
Poland: acquires German territory, 1; acquires Austro-Hungarian territory, 2; intervenes in Russia, 3; agrees to truce with Bolsheviks, 4; and the Russo-Polish War (1920), 5, 6; Soviet trade agreement with, 7; conciliation towards minorities in, 8; signs Arbitration Treaty with Germany (1925), 9; ruled by Pilsudski, 10; negotiates with Germany (1934), 11; and the Spanish Civil War, 12; Communists in, arrested (1936), 13; anti-Jewish actions in (1937), 14; Jews from Germany expelled into, 15; German pressure on (1939), 16; Roosevelt's question to Hitler about, 17; Britain signs agreements with, 18; Hitler invades, 19, 20; conquered, 21; under German occupation, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30; officers from, killed while in Soviet captivity, 31, 32; troops of, in Norway, 33; in Greece, 34; in Italy, 35; and at Arnhem, 36; German population removed from, 37; Jews murdered in, after the war, 38, 39; receives reparations from Germany, 40; Communist rule in, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50; Soviet reparations from, 51; and The Crucible, 52; and Vietnam, 53; joins the Warsaw Pact, 54; nationalist discontent in (1956), 55, 56; continued unrest in, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63; and Warsaw Pact manoeuvres, 64, 65, 66; Roman Catholicism under continued attack in, 67, 68, 69; censorship tightened in, 70; anti-Semitic resurgence in (1968), 71; and the Czechoslovak revolution (1968), 72, 73; and micro-credit, 74; and West Germany, 75; and Pope John Paul II, 76, 77; possible Soviet invasion of, 78; martial law in (1981), 79, 80; Solidarity banned in, 81; martial law ends in, but repression continues, 82, 83, 84; Soviet past actions against, 85, 86; and the environment, 87; and Chernobyl, 88, 89; Lech Walesa's demands in, 90; Communism crumbles in, 91; signs agreement with Lithuania, 92; Paderewski's body returned to, 93; Walesa becomes President of, 94; joins NATO, 95, 96
Poles: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2; in the German Empire, 3, 4, 5; autonomy in prospect for, 6; fate of, under German rule (1939–44), 7, 8, 9, 10
polio: and the Salk vaccine, 1, 2
Polish Committee of National Liberation: set up by Stalin, 1, 2
Polish Corridor: Hitler demands, 1, 2
Polish National Council: established by Stalin, 1
Polish Provinces (of Russia): unrest in, 1, 2, 3; pogrom in, 4; loses Duma seats, 5; Russification calls in, 6, 7; at risk, 8; overrun by Germany (1914–15), 9, 10; to be separated from Russia, 11; Germans seek annexation, 12; Russia gives up, 13
Polish Revolutionary Committee: set up by Russian Bolsheviks (1920), 1
Polish Writers' Union: loyal, 1; critical, 2
pollution and the environment: legislation concerning, in the United States, 1; a conference on, in Rome, 2; Canada's concerns for, 3; growing recognition of, 4; and lead poisoning, 5; and international responsibilities, 6, 7; and CFCs, 8; in Madrid, 9; and 'acid rain', 10; a World Commission on, 11; and safety, 12; and an oil spill, 13; and the first Earth Summit, 14; and the burning of forests, 15, 16; and the polluting of lakes and rivers, 17; and the polluting of seas and oceans, 18
Pomaks: in Macedonia, 1
Pomerania: acquired by Poland (1945), 1
Pompidou, Georges: and Algeria, 1
Pongam Island: prisoners of war on, 1
Poona: Gandhi imprisoned in, 1
Popieluszko, Father Jerzy: murdered, 1
Popular Front: in France, 1, 2; in Spain, 3
Porgy and Bess (opera): its first performance, 1
Port Arthur: fortified, 1; attacked, 2; actions off, 3; surrenders, 4; occupied by the Soviet Union (1945), 5
Port Elizabeth (South Africa): deaths in, 1; Steve Biko murdered on way from, 2; two bombs in, 3
Port Fuad (Egypt): and the Suez Crisis, 1
Port Said (Egypt): and infant mortality, 1; and the Suez Crisis, 2; and the Six-Day War, 3
Port Stanley (Falklands): a surrender at, 1; bombed, 2; captured, 3
Portugal: and Angola, 1, 2; dictatorship in, 3; and the Spanish Civil War, 4; Italy's last king finds refuge in, 5; and NATO, 6; in Africa, 7, 8; recognizes Southern Rhodesia's white regime, 9; a failed revolution in, 10; and Chernobyl, 11; enters European Union, 12; joins NATO's war against Serbia, 13
Portuguese Guinea: uprising in, 1
Posen (Poznan): transferred to Poland, 1; anti-Russian demonstrations in, 2
Post, Wiley: flies from New York to Berlin, 1
Potemkin (battleship): flies Red Flag, 1
Potsdam Conference (1945): agreements at, 1, 2; and the Ruhr, 3
Prague: Czech nationalism in, 1; German obstruction in, 2; Lenin active in, 3; a crucial meeting in (1914), 4; Czech speakers attacked in (1916), 5; mutineers set off for (1918), 6; and Czech independence, 7; and the Munich Conference, 8; Hitler's threat to bomb, 9; uprising in, 10; Holocaust survivors fly to Britain from, 11; Jan Masaryk falls to his death in, 12; protests in, 13, 14; a 'trainee' in, seizes power in part of Congo, 15; anti-government slogans in, 16; clashes in, 17; protests in, 18; a wartime hero of, becomes President, 19; revolution in (1968), 20; anti-Soviet demonstrations in (1969), 21; a philosopher in, visited, then interrogated, 22; and a reassurance from Moscow, 23; renewed demonstrations in (1988), 24; a non-Communist coalition established in (1989), 25; becomes capital of the Czech Republic, 26
Pravda: Stalin appoints editor of, 1; Stalin dismisses editor of, 2; and a show trial, 3; indignant, 4; and Poland, 5; editor of, dismissed, 6; and the Czechoslovak revolution, 7; refuses to publish a letter defending Solzhenitsyn's Nobel Prize, 8; critical of Polish Communist leadership, 9
Prentice, Eve-Anne: and a massacre in Rwanda, 1
Press Council of India: dissolved, 1
Pretoria: occupied, 1; apartheid legislation in, 2; Steve Biko murdered on way to, 3
Price, George: killed in action (11 November 1918), 1
Primo de Rivera, Miguel: seizes power in Spain, 1; commands troops in Spanish Morocco, 2; retains power, 3
Prince of Wales (battleship): sunk, 1
Princip, Gavrilo: an assassin, 1
'Prisoners of Zion': in the Soviet Union, 1; released, 2
Pristina: captured, 1
Prokofiev, Serge: his second symphony, 1
Proletarian Hundreds: in action in Frankfurt, 1; in action in Bavaria, 2
Protestant Evangelical Church: opposes Nazi ideology, 1; German government authority over, 2
Protestant Loyalists: in Northern Ireland, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Provisional Government (Russia): established, 1; agrees to continue war, 2; launches military offensive, 3; acts against Bolsheviks, 4; swept aside, 5
Prussia: Germanization in, 1; Polish districts of, 2; Nazi Party street violence in, 3
Przemysl (Poland): riots in, 1
Pskov: Tsar stopped at (1917), 1; Tsar urged to abdicate at, 2
Pu Yi: deposed (1922), 1; made 'Chief Executive' (1933), 2
Public Order Act (Britain): forbids uniforms in street processions, 1
Public Safety Act (South Africa): overrides acts of Parliament, 1
Puerto Rico: acquired by the United States, 1
Pulkovo Heights: anti-Bolshevik Russians reach, 1
Punjab: Indian nationalist activities in, 1; communal killings in, 2; to be partitioned, 3; fighting in (1971), 4; Sikh militants attack train in (1991), 5
Pusan: American troops land at (1950), 1; and a 'defence triangle', 2; second American retreat to, 3
Putilov Works (St Petersburg): strikes at, 1, 2
Putin, Vladimir: and Chechenya, 1; becomes President, 2
Pyongyang: and the Korean War, 1, 2, 3
Qana (Lebanon): accidental killings in, 1
Qin Yongmin: imprisoned, 1
Qom (Iran): riots in, 1
Quemoy Island: crisis over, 1
Quetta: earthquake in, 1
Quezon, Manuel: and the Philippines, 1
RUKH (Ukrainian national movement): founded (1989), 1
Rabe, John: heads Nanking Safety Zone, 1
Rabin, Leah: threatened, 1
Rabin, Yitzhak: and the Entebbe rescue, 1; seeks accommodation with Palestinians, 2, 3, 4, 5; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 6; signs Oslo II with Palestinians, 7; assassinated, 8
Racak (Kosovo): murders in, 1
Race Relations Act (1976): in Britain, 1
radar: pioneered, 1; and the Battle of Britain, 2; and the evolution of computers, 3; and a Western defence scheme, 4; and the Persian Gulf, 5
Radek, Karl: considered too moderate, 1; expelled from the Communist Party, 2; returns, 3
Radford, Admiral: proposes a bombing raid, 1
Radio Act (USA): introduces licenses, 1
Radio Peking: broadcasts nuclear fallout warning, 1
radioactive waste: not to be used in Korea, 1; not to be dumped at sea, 2
Rafah (Gaza Strip): Israeli governor of, assassinated, 1
rain forests: destruction of, 1, 2, 3; to be protected, 4
Rainbow Division (American troops): in action, 1
Rainbow Warrior (ship): seeks to halt nuclear test, 1
Rajagopalachari, Chakravati: becomes Governor General, 1
Rajk, Lazlo: tried and executed, 1
Rakovsky, Christian: brought to trial, 1; executed, 2
Rangoon: evacuated, 1
Rapid Deployment Force (United States): created, 1
Rapid Reaction Force (Bosnia): established, 1
Raskolnikov, Fedor: his letter to Stalin, 1
Rastenburg (East Prussia): Hitler's headquarters at, 1, 2, 3, 4; and the Bomb Plot, 5; Hitler 'tired, broken' at, 6; Hitler leaves, for the last time, 7; Russian troops reach, 8
Rathenau, Walther: and a postponement of German reparations, 1; assassinated, 2
Ratushinskaya, Irina: her poetry, and herself, both condemned, 1; released from labour camp, 2
Rawalpindi (armed merchant cruiser): sunk, 1
Rawlings, Flight-Lieutenant Jerry: seizes power in Ghana, 1; overthrown, 2
Reagan, Ronald: as Governor of California, 1; as President, 2, 3; and nuclear arms limitation, 4; and Poland, 5; and the Falklands War, 6; and the Soviet Union, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; and 'Star Wars', 12, 13, 14; and the invasion of Grenada, 15; and the Contras in Nicaragua, 16, 17; meets Gorbachev, 18, 19, 20; meets Jonas Savimbi, 21
Reagan Plan: for the Middle East, 1
'Real IRA': and the Omagh bomb, 1
Red Cross: seeks to combat famine in Russia, 1; not asked to help Russia, 2; and a germ warfare accusation, 3; and Rwanda, 4; and Bosnia, 5
Red Guards: and the Cultural Revolution, 1, 2, 3
Red River Delta: French retreat to, 1
Red Sea: Italy's position in, 1; and the Suez Crisis, 2
'Red Shirt' Army: raises flag of revolt, in India, 1
Red Square (Moscow): a protest demonstration in, 1; support for Lithuanian independence in, 2
'Reds': and the Russian Civil War, 1
Reichstag Fire (1933): 1
Reims: Germany's unconditional surrender at, 1
Relief Administration: in New York, 1
Remagen (River Rhine): American troops reach, 1
Renault Factory (Paris): bombed, 1
reparations: in prospect, 1; imposed, 2, 3; denounced, 4; postponed, 5; and the Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr, 6, 7; continual reduction of, 8, 9, 10; need for moratorium on, 11; virtually ended, 12
Reparations Commission: lessens Germany's burden, 1; and the French occupation of the Ruhr, 2
Republic of Salo: established, 1
Repulse (battleship): sunk, 1
Réunion Island: an exile on, 1
Revolutionary Councils: set up in Lisbon, 1
Reynolds, Albert: seeks solution for Northern Ireland, 1
Reza Shah Pahlevi, Shah of Iran: bypassed, 1; challenged, 2; demonstrations against, 3, 4; overthrown, 5
Rhee, Syngman: rules South Korea, 1, 2
Rhine River: control of, 1; Chamberlain flies to, 2; an attempt to establish a bridgehead over, 3; American troops cross, 4; a German capital on, 5
Rhineland: restrictions in, 1, 2; occupation of, ends, 3; Hitler remilitarizes, 4
Rhodes: acquired by Italy, 1
Rhodesia (Northern and Southern): racial discrimination to end in, 1
Ribbentrop, Joachim von: arrested, 1
Riddle of the Sands: and a German invasion, 1
Ridgway, General: in Korea, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Rif tribesmen: rebel, 1, 2, 3, 4
Riga: demonstrations at, 1; Russo-Polish treaty signed in, 2; Soviet troops intervene in, 3; Soviet troops ordered to intervene in, 4 Rio de Janiero: pollution in, 5; and the first Earth Summit, 6
Rivonia (Johannesburg): arrests in, 1
Robben Island: Mandela imprisoned on, 1
Robeson, Paul: his first recital, 1
Roehm, Captain: shot, 1
Rogovo (Kosovo): murders in, 1
Rojas, Admiral: threatens naval bombardment, 1
Rokossovski, Marshal: enters Polish government, 1
Rolling Stones: tour the United States, 1
Roman Catholicism: denounced, 1; under pressure, 2, fights rearguard action, 3; in Chile, 4; in China, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; in Croatia, 10; in Czechoslovakia, 11, 12; in Hungary, 13; in Ireland, 14; in Lithuania, 15; in Northern Ireland, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23; in Poland, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36; in Roumania, 37; in Southern Rhodesia, 38; in Vietnam, 39; in Yemen, 40; and the Missionaries of Charity, 41; and an American Presidential candidate, 42
Rome: Fascist Congress in (1921), 1; Mussolini comes to power in, 2; Mussolini welcomes farmers to, 3; and the annexation of Abyssinia, 4; Mussolini overthrown in, 5; German troops enter, 6; Jews seized in, 7; and the Anzio landing, 8; a reprisal in, 9; Americans reach, 10; Italy's last king leaves for exile from, 11; Treaty of (1957) and the Common Market, 12; Polish bishops not allowed to travel to, 13; a conference on pollution, held in, 14; attacks on Spanish property in, 15; an act of terror in, 16
Rommel, Erwin: 'the war will be won in a fortnight', 1; overruns Tobruk, 2; fails to reach Suez Canal, 3; defeated at El Alamein, 4; driven westward, 5; and the Normandy Landings, 6, 7; and the Hitler Bomb Plot, 8
Roosevelt, Anna Eleanor: and the March of Dimes, 1
Roosevelt, President Franklin D.: and 'world lawlessness', 1; visits battle zone (1918), 2; and the Depression in New York, 3; becomes President, 4; his inaugural address (1933), 5; foreign policy of, 6, 7, 8, 9; and the New Deal, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; refugee policy of, 17; his questions to Hitler, 18; and the Second World War, 19; aid to Britain from (1940), 20; and 'the great arsenal of democracy', 21; meets Churchill, 22, 23, 24; wins fourth term, 25; dies, 26; and the March of Dimes, 27; his second term, and Bill Clinton's, 28
Roosevelt, President Theodore: and responsibilities, 1; rebuffs the Boers, 2; intervenes in Columbia, 3; threatens miners, 4; and America's 'destiny', 5; and the environment, 6, 7; and the Congo, 8; and the Russo-Japanese War, 9; and public health, 10; declines earthquake relief, 11; and the protection of historic sites, 12; and conservation, 13
Ross, Major Ronald: wins Nobel Prize, 1
Rostropovich, Mstislav: defends Solzhenitsyn, 1
Rosyth: naval base at, 1
Rotary Club: founded, 1
Rothermere, Lord: Hitler's letter to, 1
Rotterdam: bombed, 1
Rouen: bombed, 1
Roumania: 'no history', 1; revolt in, 2; joins Second Balkan War, 3; and the First World War, 4, 5, 6; territorial gains of, 7; occupies Budapest, 8; forms Anti-Bolshevik League, 9; signs treaty with Mussolini's Italy, 10; war debts to the United States, 11; rejects border changes, 12; and the Little Entente, 13; anti-Semitism in, 14, 15; repression in, 16; promises oil to Germany, 17; its oilfields vulnerable, 18; signs an armistice, 19; Communist rule in, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25; Soviet reparations from, 26; joins Warsaw Pact, 27; and a 'safe conduct' pledge, 28; and Warsaw Pact manoeuvres, 29; Nkrumah dies in exile in, 30; earthquake in, 31; and Chernobyl, 32; rejects glasnost and perestroika, 33; the overthrow of Ceausescu in, 34; secret police in, abolished, 35; elections in, 36
Roumanians: in Austria-Hungary, 1; in Macedonia, 2, 3
Rowland, Frank Sherwood: warns about CFCs, 1
Royal College of Physicians: and lung cancer, 1
Royal Indian Navy: rebellion in, 1
Royal Irish Constabulary: augmented, 1
Royal Oak (battleship): torpedoed, 1
Ruhr: revolutionary forces in (1920), 1; occupied by France and Belgium (1923), 2, 3, 4; France and Belgium withdraw from, 5; industrial unrest in, 6; a leaflet raid on, 7; loss of water in, 8; encircled, 9; German soldiers in, surrender, 10; Russians excluded from, 11
Rumbold, Sir Horace: and the impact of Morocco on Spanish life, 1; and the rise of Nazism in Germany, 2, 3, 4, 5
Runcie, Dr Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury: and the Middle East, 1; and the Armenians, 2
Rundstedt, Field Marshal von: refused permission to withdraw, 1
Ruppin, Arthur: founder of the kibbutz, 1
Rupprecht of Bavaria, Prince: 'We must obtain peace' (1918), 1
Rural Solidarity: in Poland, recognized by the government, 1
Rusk, Dean: and American policy in West Germany, 1; and China, 2
Russell, Bertrand: protests to Khrushchev, 1
Russia (post-1991): see index entry Russian Federation
Russia-NATO Founding Act (1997): links former adversaries, 1
Russian Empire (Tsarist Empire): and China, 1; revolutionary discontent in, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; revolution in (1905), 9; and Finland, 10, 11, 12; and the Olympic Games, 13; the Jews of, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19; and Japan, 20, 21; and Macedonia, 22; and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 23; famine in, 24; and the path to war (1909–14), 25, 26, 27, 28; emigration from, 29; reform in, 30, 31; continued revolutionary violence in, 32; a fire in, 33; continued repression in, 34; and the First World War, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42; and the coming of revolution (1917), 43; and the final military offensive (1917), 44; and the Bolshevik Revolution, 45: for subsequent index entries see Soviet Union
Russian Federation: Yeltsin elected President of, 1; Communist Party banned in, 2; Hammer and Sickle replaced in, 3; becomes part of Commonwealth of Independent States, 4; signs treaty with Estonia, 5; street demonstrations in, 6; and the Black Sea Fleet, 7; signs chemical weapons convention, 8; elections in, 9; Solzhenitsyn returns to, 10; becomes the Russian Republic; for subsequent index entries see Russian Republic
Russian Orthodox Church: excommunicates Tolstoy, 1; targeted by Stalin, 2; priest of, imprisoned, 3; and church services in the Kremlin, 4
Russian Republic (formerly Russian Federation): Chechen unrest in, 1, 2, 3, 767; Yeltsin elected President of, 4; and Yeltsin's illness, 5; and Kosovo, 6, 7, 8; growing separatism in, 9; American help for, 10; Putin succeeds Yeltsin in, 11
Russian Revolution (1905): 1
Russian Revolution (1917): introduction, 2, 3, 4
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party: and Lenin, 1; conflict within, 2; revolutionary propaganda of, 3
Russian State Capitalism: Lenin's plan for, 1
Russo-Finnish War (1939–40): 1, 2
Russo-Japanese War (1904–5): 1, 2; a Russian loss of, regained (1945), 3
Ruthenes: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2, 3; soldiers in Austro-Hungarian army, mutiny, 4; in Czechoslovakia, 5; declare independence (in vain), 6
Ruthenia: becomes part of Czechoslovakia, 1; becomes independent (but then occupied by Hungary), 2
Ruzsky, General: warns Tsar (1917), 1
Rwanda: internecine strife in, 1, 2; poverty in, 3; and war crimes trials, 4, 5; supports Tutsis in Zaire, 6
Rwandans: fate of, introduction
Rykov, A. I.: accused, 1; removed, 2; brought to trial, 3
SWAPO (South-West Africa Peoples' Organization): negotiates with South Africa, 1
SS: black-uniformed Nazi 'Protection Squads', feared, 1; enlarged, 2; and the early years of the Nazi regime, 3, 4; expanded control of, 5; and a punishment camp in Belgium, 6; and the 'final solution', 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; reprisals and mass killings by, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; Hitler inspects, 19; and the death of Goebbels, 20
Saar: coal mines of, transferred to France, 1; and the League of Nations, 2, 3; French cross frontier of, 4
Sabah: and Malaysia, 1
Sabra and Chatila (refugee camps): a massacre in, 1; besieged, 2
Sachsenhausen: concentration camp at, 1
Sadat, President Anwar: visits Israel, 1; negotiates Camp David Accords, 2; signs peace treaty with Israel, 3; assassinated, 4; Clinton visits tomb of, 5 Saddam Hussein: uses chemical weapons, 6; invades Kuwait, 7; compared to Hitler, 8, 9; and the Gulf War, 10; crushes Kurds and Shi'ites, 11; continues to challenge the United Nations, 12
Sadlers Wells Ballet: its visit to Moscow, cancelled, 1
Safed: conflict in, 1
Sahara: a 'sorcerer' from, 1
Saigon: a Vietnamese government established in (1945), 1; Communists driven from, 2; Bao Dai proclaimed Chief of State in, 3; government in, pursues anti-Buddhist policy, 4; government in, committed to destroy Vietcong, 5; a bomb in, and American restraint, 6; the American ambassador in, seeks greater American military involvement, 7; a Cardinal in, speaks of a war for 'civilization', 8; attacked, 9; Kissinger in, 10; North Vietnamese capture, 11
St Basil's Cathedral (Moscow): church services in, 1
St Germain Treaty: and the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary, 1: a direct breach of, 2
St James's Palace (London): a conference on Palestine at, 1
St Lawrence River: Chinese nuclear fall-out reaches, 1
St Louis (Missouri): Olympic Games in, 1; new foods in, 2
St Mihiel Salient: American troops in action in, 1; Germans driven from, 2
St Patrick's Cathedral (Armagh): a man killed, while seeking sanctuary in, 1
St Paul's Cathedral (London): engulfed in flames, 1; a Falklands War service of thanksgiving at, 2
St Petersburg: power in, 1, 2; protests in, 3, 4; an assassination in, 5; constitutional demands in, 6, 7; revolution in (1905), 8, 9; reform in, 10; Austria denounced in (1908), 11; statistics issued in, of political prisoners, 12; and the coming of war (1914), 13; anti-war riots in (1915), 14; renewed anti-war agitation in (1916), 15; for subsequent index entries see Petrograd
St Pierre: a volcanic eruption destroys, 1
St Valentine's Day Massacre (1929): 1
St Vincent: a volcanic eruption on, 1
Saipan Island: battle for (1944), 1
Sakhalin Island: convicts on, 1; occupied, 2; a civilian airliner shot down over, 3
Sakharov, Andrei: a leading dissenter, 1; banished from Moscow, 2; forced to remain outside Moscow, 3; allowed to leave the Soviet Union, 4; gives a news conference in Moscow, 5
Salandra, Antonio: advises King to send for Mussolini, 1
Salem (Massachusetts): 'witches' of, 1
Salisbury (Southern Rhodesia): murders near, 1, 2
Salk, Jonas E.: his vaccine, 1, 2
Salonika: Young Turk revolution in, 1; Young Turk stronghold in, 2; threatened, 3; occupied, 4; assigned to Greece, 5; defended, 6; mutiny in, 7; war front at, 8; hostilities cease at, 9
Salzburg: a Heimwehr leader in, becomes Minister of Justice, 1
samizdat: private and clandestine publications, in the Soviet Union, 1, 2
Samper, Ricardo: opposes separatism in Spain, 1
San Antonio (Texas): Kennedy in, on way to Dallas, 1
San Carlos Bay (Falklands): British troops land at, 1
San Francisco: linked by cable, 1; earthquake in, 2; forbids violent films, 3; linked by telephone to New York, 4; and Roosevelt on every man's 'right to life', 5; violence in, 6
Sandanistas: in Nicaragua, 1, 2
Santiago de Chile: a protest in, broken up, 1
Santiago de Cuba: a failed coup in, 1
Santo Domingo: anti-American protests in, 1
Sarajevo: ethnic divisions in, 1; an assassination in, 2, 3; shelled, 4; a mortar bomb explodes in, 5; NATO secures military withdrawal around, 6; a football match in, 7; two parliaments meet in, 8; fighting in, 9; to become a capital, 10; a war criminal flown from, 11; the world's 6,000 millionth person born in, 12
Sarawak: and Malaysia, 1
Saro-Wiwa, Ken: executed, 1
Sastri, Srinavasa: his pioneering appointment, 1
Saturn V (rocket): and the race to land a man on the moon, 1
Satyagraha (non-violent protest): in India, 1
Saudi Arabia: and Palestine, 1; and Somalia, 2; and the Camp David Accords, 3; Idi Amin finds sanctuary in, 4; emissaries from, in Lebanon, 5; a pilgrimage to, and violence, 6; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 7; and the Gulf War, 8, 9; buys American arms, 10 Savimbi, Jonas: in Washington, 11
Sayid-Mir-Alim-Khan: establishes independent Emirate, 1
Scandinavia: and the Spanish Civil War, 1
Scapa Flow: German fleet scuttled at, 1; British battleship torpedoed in, 2
Scharnhorst (battle cruiser): launched, 1; in action, 2
Schleicher, General von: becomes Chancellor, 1; assassinated, 2
Schleswig: Danes in, 1, 2
Schlieffen, General: his plan, 1
Schmidt, Helmut: signs West German-Soviet agreement, 1
Schober, Dr Johannes: sees Austrian Nazis as of 'no importance', 1; signs Austro-German treaty, 2
Schubert: 'bourgeois', 1
Schuschnigg, Dr Kurt von: becomes Chancellor of Austria, 1; German pressure on, 2, 3; his fate, and that of Dr Hacha, 4; liberated, 5
Schwarzkopf, General: and the Gulf War, 1
Schweitzer, Albert: opposes nuclear test, 1
Schweppes: and the environment, 1
Scotland: an airliner blown up over, 1
Scott Latourette, Professor: and Chinese Communism, 1
Scott, Robert Falcon: reaches South Pole, too late, 1
Scrabble: enters the world of board games, 1
Scud missiles: launched by Iraq, 1, 2
Sea of Japan: and Cruise missiles, 1
Seaborn, J. Blair: mediates in Vietnam, 1, 2
Seagrim, Hugh: organizes resistance, 1
Sebastopol: mutiny in (1905), 1; German capture of (1942), 2; and the range of a Polaris missile (1960), 3
Sebugwawo-Amooti, Judge: shot dead, 1
Second Balkan War (1913): 1
Second World War (1939–45): introduction, introduction, 2; death toll of, 3; warships of, in a post-war atomic test, 4; a veteran of, takes command in Korea, 5; a flame-throwing device from, used in Vietnam, 6; soldiers from, in Korea, 7; and a fall in food production, 8; a former partisan leader in, calls for greater liberalization of Communism, 9; the push for a united Europe since, 10; a veteran of, becomes President, 11; and the Vietnam War, a comparison, 12; a fighter pilot from, comes to power in Southern Rhodesia, 13; a wartime hero of, becomes President of Czechoslovakia, 14; Vietnam War longer than (for the United States), 15; the growth of the United Nations since (by 1976), 16; the defeated and bankrupt of, aid the poorest countries (in 1976), 17; the largest Soviet landing exercise since (in 1981), 18; and the Gulf War (1991), 19; food stocks from, sent to Somalia (1993), 20; Germany's first military action since, against Serbia (1999), 21
Second World War (Martin Gilbert): and the Gulf War, 1
Securitate (Roumanian secret police): abolished, 1
Security Council (of the United Nations): and the Korean War, 1; and the Suez Crisis, 2; and the Congo, 3; and Southern Rhodesia, 4; and South Africa, 5; and the Falklands War, 6; and Nicaragua, 7; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 8, 9; and the Gulf War, 10; and Bosnia, 11, 12, 13; and Somalia, 14; and Rwanda, 15
Segual, Rudolfo: severely beaten, 1
Seifert, Jaroslav: wins Nobel Prize, 1
Sekou Touré, Ahmad: a dictator, murdered, 1
Selfridge, H. Gordon: opens his store, 1
Selma (Alabama): a civil rights march in, 1
Senegal: troops from, in the Ruhr (1920), 1; troops from, in Vietnam (1951), 2; joins Federation (1958), 3; first World Festival of Negro Arts held in (1966), 4; troops from, put down rebellion in Gambia (1981), 5
Senussi tribesmen: in Libya, 1
Seoul: and the Korean War, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; pollution in, 6
Serb Republic: to be established in Bosnia, 1; John Major visits, 2
Serbia: royal murders in, 1; and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 2, 3; and the First Balkan War, 4, 5; and the Second Balkan War, 6; evacuates Albania, 7; growing conflict with Austria-Hungary, 8, 9; and the coming of war in 1914, 10; at war (1914–18), 11, 12, 13; overrun, 14; and a future 'Yugoslavia', 15; Austria-Hungary to evacuate, 16; gains territory (1919), 17; intervenes in Russia, against Bolsheviks, 18; and reparations, 19; for subsequent index entries see Yugoslavia
Serbia (formerly Yugoslavia): and Bosnia, 1, 2, 3; and Kosovo, 4, 5, 6; manufactures landmines, 7; lays land mines, 8; NATO's war against, 9, 10
Serbs: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2, 3, 4; in Macedonia, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 10, 11, 12, 13; in Turkey, 14; in Yugoslavia, 15, 16, 17, 18; and Kosovo, 19 Serebrov, Feliks: sentenced, 20
Serge, Grand Duke: assassinated, 1
Sèvres Treaty: and Turkey, 1, 2
Seychelles: gain independence, 1
Seyss-Inquart, Artur: and the German annexation of Austria, 1
Sforza, Count: and the Chanak crisis, 1
Shakespeare: a ban on, in China, lifted, 1
Shanghai: fate of Communists in (1926), 1; British troops in, 2; Chinese Communist Party leadership in, 3; attacked by Japan, 4, 5; Jews find refuge in, 6; the Roman Catholic bishop of, remains in prison, 7; a released prisoner, speaks in, about fate of Chinese Christians, 8; pro-democracy demonstrations in, 9; a computer entrepreneur put on trial in, 10
Shansi Province (China): persecution of Buddhists in, 1
Sharm el-Sheikh: and the Entebbe rescue, 1
Sharon, Ariel: and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 1
Sharpeville: killings at, 1; an echo of, 2; further killings at, 3, 4
Shatt al-Arab waterway (Iraq): Iran seeks to control, 1, Iraq regains, 2
Shcharansky, Anatoly: arrested, and sentenced, 1; remains a prisoner, 2; released, 3
Sheffield (British destroyer): attacked, 1
Shepard, Commander: in space, 1
Shi'ites: in Lebanon, 1; in Iraq, 2, 3
Sholapur: Gandhi arrested in, 1
Shostakovich, Dmitri: his first symphony, 1
'show trials': in the Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Siam: transfers territory to Britain, 1; German concessions in, transferred to Britain, 2; Japanese invade Burma from, 3; fate of British prisoners of war in, 4; for subsequent index entries see Thailand
Siberia: Russian exiles in, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; Stalin in, 7; protesters killed in, 8; anti-Bolshevik Russians in, 9, 10; insurrection in, 11, 12; a former exile in, victim of a 'show trial', 13; Soviet deportations to, 14; German prisoners of war sent to, 15; deportation of Latvians to (1949), 16; radioactive dust from, 17; and a nuclear-powered submarine, 18; Buddhists in, 19; an attempted hijacking in, 20; a prisoner in, released, 21; deportation of Poles to, to be admitted, 22; pollution in, 23
Sicily: Germans withdraw to, 1; Allies invade, 2; Germans evacuate, 3; and Chernobyl, 4
Sidon (Lebanon): a suicide bomb in, 1
Sierra Leone: becomes independent, 1; a rebel reign of terror in, 2, 3
Sierra Maestra (Cuba): revolutionaries in, 1
Signals Intelligence: and the Second World War, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Sikhs: and Indian communal tensions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Silesia: Czechs in, 1; Nazi violence in, 2; transferred to Poland, 3; strikes in, 4
Silva, Antonia Maria da: deposed, 1
Simla: Hindu-Muslim conference at, 1; Hindu-Muslim disagreement at, 2
Simon, Sir John: and Indian constitutional reform, 1, 2
Simpson, John: interviews an Iranian exile, 1
Sinai Desert: and the Suez Crisis, 1, 2; and the Six-Day War, 3; Israel in occupation of, 4; and the October War, 5; and the Entebbe rescue, 6; Israel gives up, 7
Sinclair, Sir Archibald: denounces Munich Agreement, 1
Sinclair, Upton: exposes scandal, 1
Singapore: Japan bombs, 1; surrenders, 2; a prisoner of war since the fall of, witnesses the surrender of Japan, 3; given a new constitution, 4; becomes self-governing, 5; becomes independent, 6
Single European Act (1987): creates European Union, 1
Sinn Fein: founded, 1; fail to seize power (1916), 2; continued activity by, 3, 4; and the Irish Treaty (1921), 5; broadcasting ban on, lifted, 6; invited to Downing Street, 7
Sino-Japanese War (1937): introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5
Sinyavsky, Andrei: arrested, 1; tried and sentenced, 2; support for, in Poland, 3; support for, in Czechoslovakia, 4; works by, produced clandestinely, 5
Sisulu, Walter: arrested, 1
Six-Day War (1967): 1
Siyad Barre, President: his rule in Somalia, 1
Skoblevsky, Brigade Commander: a hero, shot, 1
Skopje: occupied by Albanians, 1; a warning to the Kosovo Liberation Army in, 2 Skorzeny, SS Colonel: rescues Mussolini, 3
Slansky, Rudolf: accused, 1; hanged, 2
'Slavdom': and 'Germandom', 1
Slonimski, Antoni: denounced, 1
Slovak Communist Party: the leader of, defends nationalism, 1
Slovakia: independent, introduction; demands for independence of, 2; becomes part of Czechoslovakia, 3; declares independence (1939), 4; helps Germany, 5; becomes independent again (1992), 6
Slovaks: in Austria-Hungary, 1, 2
Slovenia: conflict in, 1; soldiers from, mutiny, 2; becomes part of Yugoslavia, 3, 4; its autonomy reduced, 5; declares independence, 6; independence of, recognized, 7
smallpox: on the wane (1961), 1; virtually eliminated (1975–6), 2, 3; last pockets of (1977), 4; finally eliminated (1996), 5
Smith, Ian: declares unilateral independence for Southern Rhodesia, 1; maintains independent white rule, 2; accepts majority rule, 3; reluctant to implement majority rule, 4; procedes to majority rule, 5
Smuts, Jan Christiaan: denounces leniency, 1
Smyrna (Izmir): to be ruled by Greece, 1; a Greek base against Mustafa Kemal, 2; Turks enter, 3
Smyth, Colonel: shot dead in Cork, 1
Sobibor: Jews sent to their deaths at, 1
Social Security Act (United States): a pioneering piece of social legislation, 1, 2
Socialist Revolutionary Party: created, 1; its help enlisted by Lenin, 2; a former member of, commits suicide, 3
Sofia: Roumanians advance towards, 1; Bulganin visits, 2; pro-democracy rallies in, 3, 4
Soldiers' Mothers Group (Moscow): calls for an end to the Chechen War, 1
Solidarity: in Poland, 1, 2, 3; banned, 4; the Pope appeals on behalf of, 5; severity towards, and an amnesty, 6; three leaders of, arrested, 7; renewed demands of, 8, 9, 10; legalized, 11; a member of, becomes Prime Minister, 12
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander: criticized for 'negativism', 1; condemned as 'anti-Soviet', 2; expelled from Writers' Union, 3; wins Nobel Prize, 4; suggests Sakharov for Nobel Prize, 5; forced to leave the Soviet Union, 6; citizenship restored to, 7; returns to Russia, 8
Somalia: at war with Ethiopia, 1, 2; civil unrest and drought in, 3; political murders in, 4; intensified civil war in, 5; starvation in, 6; outside intervention in, 7, 8; the last recorded case of smallpox, recorded in, 9
Somaliland: revolts in, 1; fighting on the border of, 2; Italy controls, 3
Somme, Battle of (1916): 1, 2; gains of, lost (1918), 3; gains of, regained (1918), 4
Song of Peace: sung, before an assassination, 1
Sony Company (Japan): launches the 'Walkman', 1
Souchow (China): looted and burned, 1
Soufrière volcano: erupts, 1
South Africa: war in (1899–1902), 1, 2, 3; and the Philippines, 4; and Gandhi, 5, 6, 7; Chinese labour in, 8; Zulu revolt in, 9; Act of Union in, 10; mining unrest in, 11; and Southern Ireland, 12; an Indian Agent appointed to, 13; troops of, in the Second World War, 14, 15; apartheid in, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28:4; rejects 'the wind of change', 29; Sharpeville shootings in, 30; the 'Rivonia' trial in, 31; the first heart transplant carried out in, 32; recognizes Southern Rhodesia's white regime, 33; and the murder of Steve Biko, 34; and Namibia, 35, 36; refugees from, 37; the Senate in, abolished, 38; and Mozambique, 39, 40; continued anti-apartheid protests in (1984–5), 41; state of emergency in, 42; and the campaign for Nelson Mandela, 43; and Mandela's release from prison, 44; inter-communal violence in, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; a Transitional Executive Council set up in, 50; Arafat in, calls for Holy War for Jerusalem, 51; white parliament in, votes itself out of existence, 52; first cricket team from, for twenty-nine years, plays in Britain, 53; Truth and Reconciliation Commission in, 54, 55; Mandela's influence in, 56
South America: destruction of rain forests in, 1, 2
South Asia: poverty in (1997), 1
South China Sea: and the Vietnam War, 1
South-East Asia: species facing extinction in, 1
South-East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO): and the Cold War, 1
South Georgia Island: Argentinian forces land on, Argentine forces surrender on, 1
South Korea: and the Cold War, 1; attacked by North Korea, 2; and the Korean War, 3; signs a defence treaty with the United States, 4; equipment captured in, used in Vietnam, 5; American troop withdrawals from, 6; a civil airliner of, shot down, 7; a political prisoner in, released, 8; sees landmines as an essential defence, 9
South Pacific: a Hydrogen bomb test in, 1
South Pole: reached, 1
South Tyrol: 'Italianization' of, 1; Hitler gives up claims to, 2
South Vietnam: Communists evacuate, 1; growing conflict in, 2; American military involvement in, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15; diminishing American help for, 16; defeated, by North Vietnam, 17; for subsequent index entries see Vietnam (the 'Unified State')
South Wales: social unrest in, 1
South Yemen: civil war, 1
Southampton: Titanic sails from, 1
Southern Ireland: established, 1; for subsequent index entries see Ireland (Eire, Republic of Ireland)
Southern Rhodesia: sends pilots and airmen (1940), 1; state of emergency in (1959), 2; white minority rule in (1965–76), 3, 4, 5; majority rule promised in, 6; a 'war of liberation' in, 7; refugees from, 8, 9; guerrilla activity in, 10; multi-racial elections in, 11; for subsequent index entries see Zimbabwe
Soviet Central Asia: Indo-Pakistan peace talks in, 1; within American nuclear bomber range, 2; new mosques built in, 3
Soviet slave labour camp system: Stalin controls, 1; peasants deported to, 2; Communist Party members deported to, 3; 'liquidation' in, 4; and the Baltic deportations, 5; and Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin, 6; and the Hungarian Revolution, 7; two writers despatched to, 8; a Buddhist scholar in, 9; exposed, 10; a Prisoner of Zion and a poetess in, 11; releases from, 12, 13, 14
Soviet State Orchestra: its visit to the United States, cancelled, 1
Soviet Union: survives longest, introduction; a thing of the past, introduction; civil war at birth of, 2; and the Russo-Polish War, 3, 4; challenge to, by Green Army, 5; Mustafa Kemal negotiates with, 6; annexes eastern Armenia, 7; annexes Georgia and Azerbaijan, 8; foreign Communists find refuge, and death, in, 9; imposition of Communism in, 10; New Economic Policy (NEP) in, 11, 12; famine in, 13; Jews of, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 'show trials' in, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29; after Lenin's death, 30; troubled artistic life in, 31; Stalin strengthens his control of, 32, 33, 34, 35; signs treaty with Germany (1926), 36; provides secret training grounds for Germany, 37, 38; signs a treaty with Kuomintang (1926), 39; British breach with, 40; campaign against Kulaks in, 41, 42, 43; campaign against religion in, 44; reappears on world market, 45; renewed famine in, 46; and Hitler's Germany, 47, 48; slave labour in, 49, 50; mass arrests in, 51; executions in, 52, 53; foreign policy of (1933–9), 54; Stalin's continued repression in (1934–9), 55, 56, 57, 58; and the Spanish Civil War, 59, 60; and Czechoslovakia, 61; and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 62, 63; invades Finland, 64, 65; murder of Polish prisoners of war in, 66; Hitler plans invasion of, 67; German invasion of, postponed, 68; Germany invades, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73; fate of its prisoners of war in German hands, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78; partisans in, 79, 80, 81, 82; troops of, advance into Poland, 83, 84, 85; helps Tito, 86; troops of, reach Budapest, 87; troops of, advance into Germany, 88, 89, 90; and the bombing of Dresden, 91; troops of, capture Hungarian oilfields, 92; troops of, enter Berlin, 93; declares war on Japan, 94; conquers Manchuria, 95; and post-1945 Germany, 96, 97, 98; and post-war Austria, 99, 100, 101; and post-1945 reparations, 102; Stalinism maintained in (after 1945), 103, 104, 105; and Poland, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111; internal national strife in, 112; and the Cold War, 113, 114; and Berlin, 115, 116, 117, 118; and Lithuania, 119; and Yugoslavia, 120, 121, 122; and Communist China, 123; and North Korea, 124; and the Korean War, 125; and Poland, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135; and Czechoslovakia, 136, 137; and Roumania, 138; and Bulgaria, 139; and Britain, 140, 141; and nuclear disarmament, 142; and Japan, 143; and Stalin's death, 144; and the continuing Cold War, 145, 146, 147, 148; and radioactive rain, 149; and the Hydrogen bomb, 150, 151, 152, 153; under Khrushchev, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160; and Vietnam, 161, 162, 163; and the Warsaw Pact, 164; and the Hungarian revolution (1956), 165, 166, 167, 168; and East Germany, 169; bans Dr Zhivago, 170, 171; and nuclear testing negotiations, 172; and an American nuclear-powered submarine, 173; proposes a Balkan/Adriatic nuclear-free zone, 174; and the Congo, 175; and men in space, 176, 177; and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 178; and Warsaw Pact manoeuvres, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183; and the Khrushchev-Kennedy 'hot line', 184; and the Brezhnev era, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190; and the Tokyo Olympics, 191; and Cuba, 192, 193; and Egypt, 194; signs Test Ban Treaty (1963), 195; signs Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), 196; sponsors India-Pakistan peace talks, 197; protests at Chinese nuclear test, 198; and nuclear ballistic missile warfare, 199, 200; and the Czechoslovak revolution (1968), 201; and continuing Czech protests, 202; growing dissent in (1969–81), 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211; and Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216; and Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, 217, 218; and an 'unseemly' Nobel Prize, 219; and the Middle East, 220; and Uganda, 221; and Angola, 222; extent of the rule of, 223; the last of the great twentieth century empires, 224; supports ZAPU in Rhodesia, 225; supports Colonel Mengistu in Ethiopia, 226, 227; and Afghanistan, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238; and Zaire, 239; and asylum-seekers, in the United States, 240; and the Iran-Iraq war, 241; growing nationalist agitation in (1981), 242; declines to help world's refugees, 243; 'disdain' of human rights in, 244; disdain of Live Aid in, 245; and 'Star Wars', 246; shoots down a civilian airliner, 247; pollution in, 248; and the Helsinki agreement, 249; Chernenko comes to power in, 250; Gorbachev comes to power in, 251; and 'perestroika', 252, 253; and arms sales, 254; and Chernobyl, 255, 256; Gorbachev's reforms in, 257, 258, 259, 260; and Nagorno-Karabakh, 261; disintegration of, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268; and the end of the Cold War, 269; and the destruction of chemical weapons, 270; and the limitation of conventional forces, 271; and Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait, 272; and an armed intervention in Lithuania, 273; ceases to exist, 274
Soviet Writers' Union: Pasternak expelled from, 1; Solzhenitsyn and Voznesensky condemned by, 2; expels Solzhenitsyn, 3; denounces Solzhenitsyn's Nobel Prize, 4
Soweto (Johannesburg): killings in, 1, 2
Spa (Belgium): Kaiser at, as war ends, 1
space exploration: introduction, 2, 3, 4; and the first lunar landing by man, 5; and the Challenger disaster, 6
Spain: and the United States, 1; internal unrest in, 2, 3, 4; imperial problems of, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; emigration from, 10; a flying accident in, 11; sends grain to Soviet Union, 12; democracy overthrown in, 13; dictatorship maintained in, 14; and Mussolini's Italy, 15; moves towards civil war (1934–5), 16, 17; civil war in (1936–9), 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23; Peron given refuge in, 24; the end of Franco's rule in, 25; and Chernobyl, 26; Basque separatism in, 27; and European Union, 28; buys American arms, 29; manufactures land mines, 30; joins NATO's war against Serbia, 31
Spanish-American War (1898): 1
Spanish Civil War: introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; a veteran of, sent by Stalin to Warsaw, 8; a veteran of, at Stalin's seventieth birthday, 9
Spanish Legion: in Morocco, 1; in action in the Asturias, 2
Spanish Morocco: rebellions in, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; troops from, crush Asturias revolt, 7; Franco takes control of, 8; troops from, in Spanish Civil War, 9
Spartacists: seek power in Germany, 1, 2, 3; crushed, 4
Spectator (magazine): a stark description of war in (1916), 1
Speer, Albert: warns Hitler, 1
Spellman, Cardinal: and a war for 'civilization', 1
Spender, J. A.: and 'something nasty and brutish' in Hitler's Germany, 1
Spender, Stephen: and the Spanish Civil War, 1
Sperling, Eduard: protects Chinese in Nanking, 1
Speth, James: notes global economic disparities, 1
Spirit of St Louis (aircraft): crosses Atlantic, 1
Spithead: naval review at, 1
Sputnik: launched, 1
Sputnik II: launched, 1
Srebrenica (Bosnia): bombarded, 1; attacked, 2; Muslims from, unaccounted for, 3; murders in, confirmed, 4, 5; and a war crimes conviction, 6; and a war crimes capture, 7
Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon): drought in, 1; Tamil insurgency in, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Srinagar: Muslim troops reach outskirts of, 1
Stabilization Force: NATO-led, in Bosnia, 1
Stahlhelm (veterans' association): Hitler joins forces with, 1
Stalin, Josef: his rule and demise, introduction; a revolutionary, 2, 3; arrested, 4; promoted, 5; his early victims, 6; Lenin's criticism of, 7; emerges as Lenin's successor, 8; deprives his opponents of influence, 9, 10, 11, 12; sends a General to China, 13; turns against Chinese Communists, 14; turns against the Kulaks, 15; a fellow-prisoner with, before revolution, presides over show trials, 16; helps secret German rearmament, 17, 18; emulated by Mao Tse-tung, 19, 20; belittles a critic, 21; orders construction of a canal, 22; continues to eliminate opponents and imaginary opponents, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27; his draconian decree (1934), 28; acts against the Russian Orthodox Church, 29; an appeal to, 30; and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 31, 32; and the Russo-Finnish War, 33; and the shooting of Polish prisoners of war at Katyn, 34; orders Trotsky's death, 35; and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, 36; British aid for, 37; and the evacuation of Moscow, 38; and the future of Poland, 39, 40, 41; and Hitler's suspicions of Hungary, 42; launches 1944 offensive, 43; and the Warsaw Uprising, 44; and the Soviet declaration of war on Japan, 45; cult of, 46; and the Marshall Plan, 47; and Yugoslavia, 48; and Latvia, 49; and the Berlin Blockade, 50; and Communist China, 51, 52; his seventieth birthday, 53; possible negotiations with, 54; dies, 55; and 'a woman of the streets', 56; denounced by Khrushchev, 57; and Chinese Communism, 58; and an open letter to, published, 59; purges of, to have a memorial, 60; those purged by, rehabilitated, 61, 62
Stalingrad, Battle for: 1, 2, 3
Stanleyville (Congo): a separate regime declared in, 1
Star of David: Jews fight under symbol of, 1
'Star Wars': a turning point in the Cold War, 1, 2; Britain supports, 3; a successor to, inaugurated and then cancelled, 4
Starhemberg, Prince: enters Austrian government, 1
Starr, Kenneth: investigates Clinton, 1
Staten Island Zoo (New York): and lead poisoning, 1
Statue of Liberty: two flights around, 1
Stauffenberg, Count Claus von: and the Hitler bomb plot, 1
stock market crashes: 1, 2, 3
Stockholm: Olympic Games at (1912), 1; German munitions production in (1928), 2; a meeting in, on the environment (1973), 3
Stolypin, Peter: promises reform, 1; warns against revolutionary excess, 2; reforms of, 3; assassinated, 4
Stone Age: recalled, 1
'Stop the Draft Week': in the United States, 1
Stormtroops: see index entry Brownshirts
Straits of Tiran: and the Six-Day War, 1
Strasbourg: liberated, 1; European Parliament in, 2
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): in progress, 1; the first round of, concluded, 2; a second round of, begun, 3, 4; and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 5, 6
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START): begin, 1; continue, 2; revived, 3; signed, 4
Stresemann, Gustav: a moderate Foreign Minister, 1
Student, General Kurt: unable to carry out Hitler's order, 1
Students' Solidarity Committee: active, in Poland, 1
Stürmer, Boris: advocates peace (1916), 1
Suares, Mario: leads parliamentary government, 1
Sub-Saharan Africa: poverty in, 1
submarines: transform war, 1; first fatalities of, 2, 3; and the First World War, 4, 5, 6; Germany forbidden to build or buy (1919), 7; attacks on merchant ships by, condemned, 8; German manufacture of (after 1933), 9; and the Pacific War, 10; and the worst maritime disaster of the Second World War, 306; atomic powered, 11, 12; nuclear armed, 13, 14; and the Falklands War, 15; an accidental sinking of, 16; and missiles launched against Serbia (1999), 17
Sudan: Britain in, 1; Muslim uprising in, 2; Christians murdered in, 3; floods in, 4, 5; refugees in, 6, 7; Islamic rule in, 8; poverty in, 9; famine in, 10; debt reduction for, 11
Sudeten Germans: and their pro-Nazi champion, 1, 2; and the German annexation of the Sudetenland, 3
Sudetenland: becomes part of Czechoslovakia, 1; a pro-Nazi movement in, 2, 3; annexed by Germany, 4; Sudeten Germans removed from, 5
Suez Canal: control of, 1, 2; German troops advance towards, 3; German troops fail to reach, 4; Nasser nationalizes, 5; and the Suez Crisis, 6, 7; and the Six-Day War, 8; and the October War, 9
Suez City: bombarded, 1
Suez Crisis (1956): 1, 2, 3, 4
suffragettes: in action, 1
Suharto, President: falls from power, 1
suicide bombers: in Lebanon, 1, 2; in Israel, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Sukarno, Achmed: hosts 'non-aligned' nations, 1
Sukhumi: Abkhazians in, revolt, 1
Sullivan, Thomas: his tea bag, 1
Sultanate (of Turkey): abolished, 1
Suluk people (Borneo): uprising by, 1
Sumatra: a wartime maritime disaster off, 1
Sumgait (Azerbaijan): Armenians attacked in, 1
Sun Chuan-fang, Marshal: beats off Kuomintang, 1
Sun Yat-sen: and China, 1, 2, 3; his army to be trained by Soviet instructors, 4
Superfin, Gabriel: sentenced, 1
Suppression of Communism Act (South Africa): 1
Supreme Allied Council (1917–20): its authority, 1; and reparations, 2, 3; and Turkey, 4; and Armenia, 5
Supreme Court (United States): and the New Deal, 1, 2, 3; and segregation, 4, 5, 6; and McCarthyism, 7; and the publication of government documents on Vietnam, 8; rules against Presidential immunity, 9
Supreme War Council (1939–40): plans offensive against Norway, and help for Finland, 1
Supreme War Direction Council (Japan): divided on whether to continue the war, 1
Suvla Bay: landings at (1915), 1
Suzman, Helen: opposes apartheid, 1
Svoboda, General: becomes President of Czechoslovakia, 1; flown to Moscow, 2
Swart, C. R.: defends apartheid, 1
swastika: versus the 'Soviet star', 1; in Austria, 2, 3; in Bavaria, 4; at Nuremberg, 5; at Hersbruck, 6; becomes Germany's official flag, 7; helps protect Chinese in Nanking, 8; German troops welcomed with, in Austria, 9; raised, in the Caucasus, 10; raised in Stalingrad, 11
Swaziland: to become independent, 1
Sweden: German aircraft production in, 1; German munitions production in, 2, 3; possible Allied advance into, 4; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 5; and Chernobyl, 6, 7
'Swiss model': for Austria, 1
Switzerland: an exile in, 1, 2, 3; peace talks in, 4; German aircraft production in, 5; and Hitler's Germany, 6; and the Spanish Civil War, 7; American-Japanese negotiations in (1945), 8; a resignation from, by telephone, 9; releases Palestinian prisoners, 10; a Soviet satirical novel published in, 11; and Chernobyl, 12; arms manufactured in, in Afghanistan, 13; does not buy American arms, 14
Sykes, Sir Richard: shot dead by IRA, 1
synagogues: desecrated (1931), 1; set on fire (1938), 2; all but one closed down, in Moscow (1961), 3
Syria: Armenians driven into, 1; becomes a French Mandate, 2; Arab Liberation Army founded in, 3; Palestinian Arab refugees in, 4; and the Six-Day War, 5; PLO fighters flee to, 6; and the October War, 7; and the Lebanese civil war, 8, 9; refuses to participate in Camp David Accords, 10; leaves Beirut, 11; troop losses of, in Lebanon, 12; civil war in, 13
Szechwan (China): thousands killed in, (1967), 1; severe flooding in (1981), 2
Szürös, Mátyás: proclaims 'Hungarian Republic', 1
TWA (Transworld Airlines): and a hijacking, 1
Tadic, Dusan: arrested and indicted, 1
Tadzhikistan: becomes independent, 1
Taiwan: Japanese rule in, 1; Nationalist Chinese move to, 2; Japanese treaty of friendship with, 3; American support for, 4 Taleban: besiege Kabul, 5; control Afghanistan, 6
Tallinn (Estonia): fighting in (1905), 1; attempted Bolshevik uprising in (1924), 2; and a coup in Moscow (1991), 3
Tamil Tigers: wage a guerrilla war in Sri Lanka, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, 8; negotiations opened with, 9
Tanganyika: constitutional change in, 1; Peace Corps volunteers in, 2; for subsequent index entries see Tanzania
Tangier: naval mutiny off, 1
tanks: transform war, 1; first used in war (1916), 2; in action (1917–18), 3, 4; sent to Ireland, 5; manufactured secretly by Germany (after 1926), 6, 7; used in Vienna against Socialist workers, 8; Hitler re-introduces, 9; Japanese superiority in, in China, 10; and the German invasion of Poland, 11; and British aid to Russia, 12; and the battle for Moscow, 13, and the Battle of Kursk, 14; and the Normandy landings, 15; and Arnhem, 16; and Hitler's last weeks, 17; in Vietnam, 18, 19; and the Berlin Blockade, 20; sent by the Soviet Union to North Korea, 21; and the Korean War, 22, 23, 24; used to disperse Czech demonstrators, 25; used against East Berliners, 26; used to disperse Polish demonstrators, 27; used by the Soviet Union in Budapest, 28, 29; used by India against Pakistan, 30; in Prague, 31; on the Golan Heights, 32; in Cyprus, 33; and disarmament, 34; and Israel's siege of Beirut, 35; and a Syrian act of reprisal, 36; a student demonstrator confronts, in Beijing, 37; in the streets of Vilnius, 38; and the Gulf War, 39; and a failed coup in Moscow, 40; and Yeltsin's retention of power, 41; in the Bosnian conflict, 42, 43
Tannenberg, Battle of (1914): 1
Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar): and South Africa, 1; Rwandan war crimes trials held in, 2
Taraki, Nur Muhammad: seizes power, in Kabul, 1
Tashkent: India-Pakistan peace talks in, 1
Tauride Palace (St Petersburg): Duma in, 1
Taylor, General: urges air strikes against North Vietnam, 1; urges use of American ground troops in South Vietnam, 2
Tblisi (Tiflis): reprisals in, 1; riots in, 2; demonstrations in, 3
Teheran: protests in, 1, 2, 3; hostages seized in, 4, 5; a rescue mission to, 6
Tel Aviv: bombed, 1; a terrorist bomb in, 2; Kissinger flies to, from Moscow, 3; an airline on its way from, hijacked, 4; flights to Cairo from, 5; suicide bombs in, 6, 7; Leah Rabin threatened in, 8; Yitzhak Rabin assassinated in, 9
telephones: and the 1917 Bolshevik revolution, 1; and Indian protests against British rule, 2; and the first commercial transatlantic link, 3; France directs military action over, 4; and the Spanish Civil War, 5; and Stalin's 'scorched earth' policy, 6; and Germany's final war effort, 7; a resignation made over, 8; and the Kennedy-Nixon Presidential race, 9; and the Kennedy-Khrushchev 'hot line', 10; and the Kosygin-Johnson 'hot line', 11; transmitted through space, 12, 13; Nasser uses, to persuade King Hussein to attack Israel, 14; and martial law in Poland, 15; Thatcher uses, to urge Reagan not to invade Grenada, 16; Gorbachev uses, to tell Sakharov he can resume work, 17; and a 'cellular' revolution, 18; and a would-be coup in Moscow, 19
television: and war, introduction; first transmission of, 2; growing popularity of, 3; and Eisenhower's challenge to Truman, 4; and a shoe-banging incident, 5; and space exploration, 6; and Kennedy's firmness on Berlin, 7; and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 8; and the Tokyo Olympics, 9; pictures from space transmitted through, 10; and an execution in Vietnam, 11; Johnson announces his resignation on, 12; and the first moon landing, 13; and the violence in Northern Ireland, 14; and Watergate, 15, 16; and Sadat's visit to Jerusalem, 17; and the installation of Pope John Paul II, 18; and the failed Iranian hostage rescue, 19; and communications satellites, 20; Reagan and Gorbachev speak to each other's people on, 21; and Chernobyl, 22, 23; and the Challenger disaster, 24; Gorbachev explains his nuclear disarmament policy on, 25; Walesa's demands made on, 26; George Bush speaks on, following Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, 27; and the bombing of the Mutla Ridge, 28; and a killing during the World Cup, 29; and the funerals of those killed by a suicide bomber, 30; banned, by the Taleban, 31
Tell al-Za'atar (Beirut): massacre in, 1
Tennessee: Martin Luther King assassinated in, 1
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): established, 1
Terekhov, Comrade: Stalin belittles, 1
Teresa, Mother: in Calcutta, 1; her Missionaries of Charity, in Yemen, 2
Test Ban Treaty (1963): and Chinese nuclear tests, 1, 2
Tet Offensive (Vietnam): 1; and a new offensive, 2
tetanus: death of children from, 1
Texas: oil discovered in, 1; the New Deal in, 2; a Senator from, leads civil rights changes, 3; within missile range of Cuba, 4; Kennedy assassinated in, 5
Thaelmann, Ernst: a candidate for President, 1, 2; killed, as a reprisal, 3
Thailand (formerly Siam): withdraws its troops from Laos, 1; American troops withdraw from, 2; in conflict with Cambodia, 3; refugees in, 4
Thatcher, Margaret: and Northern Ireland, 1, 2; and the Falklands War, 3, 4; and the Soviet Union, 5; and the American invasion of Grenada, 6; an IRA bomb attempt on, 7; and Star Wars, 8; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 9; forced from office, 10
The Bridge On The River Kwai (film): wins four Oscars, 1
The Crucible (Arthur Miller): defends freedom of expression, 1
The Great Illusion (Norman Angell): warns about war, 1
The Plough that Broke the Plains (film): and the New Deal, 1
The Times: and a memorial service, 1; and a transatlantic signal, 2; and radium, 3; and Kristallnacht, 4; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 5; and a massacre in Rwanda, 6; and the killings in Kosovo, 7
These Times (J. A. Spender): and Nazi Germany, 1
Thieu, President: and American proposals for Vietnam, 1, 2
Third International: encourages world revolution, 1
Third World: and the industrialized nations, 1, 2; and the struggle for subsistence, 3
Thirty-Fives (35s): launch a campaign on behalf of Raisa Palatnik, and all Soviet Jews who seek to leave, 1
Thrace: Turks driven from, 1, 2; gained by Greece, 3; Turks rule small eastern area of, 4
Thyssen, Fritz: his money reaches Hitler, 1
Tiananmen Gate (Peking): Mao Tse-tung appears on, 1
Tiananmen Square (Beijing): demonstrators in, killed, 1; a student leader in, arrested, 2; an anniversary of, and an electronic magazine, 3
Tibet: invaded by Britain, 1; invaded by China, 2; resistance in, 3, 4; a Chinese concession in, 5; protests in, 6; plight of prisoners in, 7
Tiflis: Stalin in, 1; riots in, 2; for subsequent index entries see Tblisi
tigers: endangered, 1
Tigre People's Liberation Front: controls part of Ethiopia, 1
Tigris River: and the Iran-Iraq war, 1
Tilak, Bal Gangadhar: sentenced, 1
Time Square (New York): celebrations in (1945), 1
Timisoara: Bishop of, imprisoned, 1; mass demonstrations in, 2
Tinian Island: battle for (1944), 1
Tirana: student protests in, 1
Tirpitz, Admiral: and the Dardanelles, 1
Tirpitz (German battleship): sunk, 1
Tiso, Father: and his 'protector' (Hitler), 1
Tisza, Count: calls for peace (1916), 1
Titanic: sinks (1912), 1; a worse peace-time disaster than, 2
Tito (Josip Broz): imprisoned, 1; leads resistance, 2; breaks with Stalin, 3; an accusation against, 4; 'treachery' of, 5
Tobruk: captured, 1; regained, 2
Togoland: to become independent, 1
Tökés, László: defends ethnic and religious rights, 1
Tokyo: earthquake in, 1; bombed, 2, 3; news of the Nagasaki atomic bomb reaches, 4; war crimes trials in, 5; MacArthur in, during Korean War, 6; Olympic Games in, 7; talks in, between Malaysia and Indonesia, rebuffed, 8
Tokyo Bay: Japan's surrender signed in, 1
Toller, Ernst: seizes power in Munich, 1; imprisoned, 2
Tolstoy, Count Leo: supports protests, 1; opposes repression, 2; his death, 3
Tomsky, Mikhail: accused, 1
Topeka (Kansas): a Supreme Court ruling concerning, 1
Tosca (film): premiere of, 1
Toulon: French ships reach safety at, 1
Town Planning Act (Britain): 1
Trades Union Council (Britain): and the General Strike, 1
Trafalgar Square (London): anti-nuclear protest in, 1
Trans-Siberian Railway: completed, 1; and the Russo-Japanese War, 2; insurrection along, 3
Transjordan: established, 1; and Israel, 2; for subsequent index entries see Jordan
Transvaal: goes to war, 1; a 'White man's country', 2; Indians of, 3; violence in, 4
Transylvania: Roumania covets, 1; Roumania invades, 2; Roumania acquires, 3
Trappist monks: killed in Algeria, 1
Treaty of Bucharest (1913): ends Second Balkan War, 1
Treaty of Rome (1957): and European union, 1
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: signed (1968), 1; ratified (1969), 2
Treblinka: Jews deported to, and killed, 1
Trepoff, Alexander: and Russian war aims (1916–17), 1
Trianon Treaty: and the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary, 1
Tribune (Chicago): and a peace prize, 1
Trieste: unrest in, 1, 2
Trimble, David: wins Nobel Prize, 1
Tripoli: bombarded, 1; conquered, 2
Tripolitania: Italy conquers, 1
Trotha, General von: threatens 'extermination', 1
Trotsky, Leon: seeks peace, 1; accepts German peace terms, 2; drives back anti-Bolshevik Russians, 3; and the Russo-Polish War, 4; sends troops to Bukhara, 5; orders rebellion suppressed, 6; Lenin's chosen successor, 7; outmanoeuvred by Stalin, 8, 9, 10; expelled from Soviet Union, 11; an opponent of, removed, 12; accused, 13; associates of, accused and shot, 14; murdered, on Stalin's orders, 15
Trujillo, President: defeats rebels, 1
Truman, Harry S.: in action (1918), 1, 2; succeeds Roosevelt (1945), 3; at Potsdam, 4; and the atomic bombs, 5, 6; and the evolution of the Truman Doctrine, 7, 8, 9; and civil rights, 10; and the Marshall Plan, 11, 12; and the 'Fair Deal' policy, 13; and NATO, 14; and the Hydrogen bomb, 15; and McCarthy, 16; and Vietnam, 17; and the Korean War, 18, 19, 20, 21
Truth and Reconciliation Commission: in South Africa, 1, 2
Tsarist Empire: see index entry Russian Empire
Tschirschky, Count: and the coming of war in 1914, 1, 2
Tshombe, Moise: leads a breakaway province, 1, 2, 3
Tsien, H. S.: returns to China, 1
Tsushima Strait: naval battle in, 1
tuberculosis (TB): overtaken by lung cancer, 1; and the Salk vaccine, 2; among the 'great epidemic diseases', 3; resurgence of, 4
Tukhachevsky, General: suppresses rebellion, 1; shot, 2
Tula (Russia): mutiny in, 1
Tulle (France): reprisals in, 1
Tulsa (Oklahoma): race riot in, 1
Tunis: a hero returns to, 1; a leader finds refuge in, 2; a raid on, 3
Tunisia: battle for (1942–3), 1; Germans in, surrender, 2; French rule in, ends, 3; troops from, in the Congo, 4
Tunnel (magazine): distributed in China by e-mail, 1
Turkestan: Muslim revolt in (1924), 1
Turkey: and the Treaty of Sèvres, 1; and British policy towards the Sultan, 2; successfully challenges Britain, France and Italy, 3; becomes a republic, 4; refuses to recognize Soviet Union, 5; Kemal's dictatorship, and reforms, in, 6, 7; Trotsky in exile in, 8; takes in Jewish refugees, 9; Britain signs agreement with (1939), 10; America helps (1947), 11; and the Korean War, 12; and a parallel with Iran, 13; and the Baghdad Pact, 14; and Cyprus, 15, 16, 17; and the Cuban missile crisis compromise, 18; NATO helps, 19; Ayatollah Khomeini briefly in exile in, 20; WHO helps, 21; earthquake in, 22; political unrest in, 23; and Chernobyl, 24; joins NATO's war against Serbia, 25
Turkic peoples: in China, a minority, 1
Turkish Empire: see index entry Ottoman Empire
Turkmenistan: becomes independent, 1
Turks: in Macedonia, 1, 2
Tuscaloosa (Alabama): desegregation in, 1
Tutsis: in Rwanda, 1, 2, 3, 4; in Burundi, 5; in Zaire, 6, 7
Tutu, Bishop Desmond: a campaigner against apartheid, 1; wins Nobel Peace Prize, 2; heads Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 3
Tuzla (Bosnia): fighting near, 1
Twain, Mark: protests, 1
typhoid: among the 'great epidemic diseases', 1
Tyrol: a boycott in, 1; Italian demands in, 2 UNITA: and the Angolan civil war, 3, 4
U-2 ('spy' plane): shot down, 1
U-boats: early fatalities of, 1; a commander of (in 1914–18), defies Hitler, 2, 3; in the Second World War, 4, 5; factory making, bombed, 6
U Thant: heads United Nations, 1; and Vietnam, 2
Ueda, General: attacks Shanghai, 1
Ufa (Russia): an assassination in, 1
Uganda: British rule challenged in, 1; Indians in, harassed, 2; Idi Amin's rule in, 3, 4; and a hijacking, 5; growing number of killings in, 6, 7; Amin overthrown in, 8; continued unrest in, 9; and a human rights appeal, 10; civil war and human rights abuses in, 11; supports Tutsis in Zaire, 12; debt reduction for, 13
Ukraine: independent, introduction; Polish minority in, 2; German territorial designs on (1918), 3; Russia agrees to give up, 4; German and Austro-Hungarian designs on, 5; Denikin advances from, 6; Poles enter, 7; Soviet campaign against Kulaks in, 8; a Central Committee member in, belittled by Stalin, 9; arrests in, 10; Germans conquer, 11; labourers from, in Germany, 12; post-1945 Communist rule in, 13, 14; Helsinki Monitors in, 15; and the Soviet threat to Poland (1980), 16; and a nuclear reactor explosion (1986), 17; nationalist ferment in (1989–91), 18; declares independence, 19; votes for separation from Soviet Union, 20; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 21; signs agreement with Iran, 22; fighting in, 23; and the Black Sea Fleet, 24; nuclear warheads in, to be dismantled, 25; peacekeepers from, in Bosnia, 26; mercenaries from, in Sierra Leone, 27; peacekeepers from, in Kosovo, 28
Ukrainians: in Poland, 1, 2, 3; in German-occupied Poland, 4
Ulanova, Galina: dances in London, 1
Ulbricht, Walter: celebrates Stalin's seventieth birthday, 1; and Berlin, 2
Ulster: and the Irish Treaty (1921), 1
Ulster Defence Association: formed, 1
Ulster Defence Regiment: in Northern Ireland, 1, 2
Ulster Volunteer Force: an act of terror by, 1
Umberto II, King (of Italy): leaves for exile, 1
'Unified Team': at Barcelona Olympics, 1
Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI): in Southern Rhodesia, 1
United Arab Emirates: and the Gulf War, 1
United Democratic Front (South Africa): Mandela appeals to, 1
United Farm Workers Union: protests, in California, 1
United Nations: a Secretary General of, 1; a future Secretary General of, 2; its first General Assembly, 3; its Children's Emergency Fund, 4; and Kashmir, 5; and Palestine, 6, 7; and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 8; and Vietnam, 9, 10; and Bulgaria, 11; and Russia's atomic power, 12; and the Korean War, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23; and Tibet, 24: and Japan, 25; and McCarthyism, 26; a delegate to, seeks asylum, 27; and nuclear testing, 28; and nuclear disarmament, 29; Dalai Lama appeals to, 30; and the Congo, 31, 32; and Madagascar, 33; and global disease, 34; and the Cuban missile crisis, 35; and Algeria, 36; and Kashmir, 37; and Singapore, 38; anti-Vietnam War suicides outside, 39, 40; and the Six-Day War, 41; and China, 42, 43; and Lithuania, 44; and the environment, 45; and Cyprus, 46; and world poverty, 47, 48, 49; and world health, 50, 51, 52; and world wealth, 53; and Spain, 54; growth of, 55, 56; and refugees, 57, 58, 59, 60; and a global arms sales statistic, 61; and Lebanon, 62; and the world's 5,000 millionth inhabitant, 63; and the world's 6,000 millionth inhabitant, 64; and the Iran-Iraq War, 65, 66; and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, 67; and post-Gulf War Iraq, 68; and Somalia, 69, 70, 71; and post-1991 Yugoslavia, 72; and Bosnia, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78; and Rwanda, 79, 80; and South Lebanon, 81; Kofi Annan becomes Secretary-General of, 82; and Sierra Leone, 83; East Timor enters, 84
United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF): 1, 2
United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat): held in Vancouver, 1
United Nations Development Programme: and agricultural training in the poorest countries, 1; and global economic disparities, 2
United Nations Disaster Relief Office: combats drought and flooding, 1
United Nations Economic and Social Council: meets in Africa, 1; the tasks confronting, 2
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF): in Gaza and Sinai, 1
United Nations General Assembly: first meeting of, 1; and the Hungarian Revolution, 2, 3; and South Africa, 4; and Togoland, 5; and Tibet, 6; Khrushchev bangs his shoe in, 7; Kennedy appeals at, for abolition of nuclear weapons, 8; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 9; addressed by Arafat, 10; and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, 11; condemns Pinochet regime in Chile, 12; and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 13
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: responsibilities of, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; and the Boat People, 6; and Somalia, 7
United Nations Human Rights Commission: three nations appeal to, 1
United Nations Population Conference (1984): in Mexico City, 1
United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR): in Bosnia, 1
United Nations Security Council: see index entry Security Council
United Nations World Health Organization (WHO): campaigns against smoking, 1, 2; and the elimination of smallpox, 3, 4, 5; and 'health for all' by the year 2000, 6; and the protection of milk for babies, 7; and malaria, 8; and pollution, 9; and TB, 10
United States: motor car victims in, introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; immigration to, 11, 12; 'destiny of', 13; domestic unrest in, 14; and the Boxer rebellion, 15; and the Olympic Games, 16,25; and the revolver, 17; under McKinley, 18; and the Philippines, 19, 20, 21, 22; and Colombia, 23, 24; and Haiti, 25; and the Russo-Japanese War, 26; and Macedonia, 27; and Panama, 28; and the first Country Club, 29; and steel, 30; and votes for women, 31; and the San Francisco earthquake, 32; and the first film studio, 33; cinema in, 34, 35, 36; inventions in, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42; early steps to protect the environment in, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47; losing the 'impulse to war', 48; labour unrest in, 49; air crashes in, 50; and broadcasting, 51; manufacturing output of (1913), 52; and the two Balkan Wars (1912–13), 53; and the Lusitania, 54; a citizen of, saved from execution, 55; and the path to war (1917), 56; declares war on Germany (6 April 1917); troops from, reach Europe, 57; troops from, in action (1918), 58, 59, 60, 61; troops from, victims of influenza epidemic, 62; intervenes in Russia, 63; withdraws from Russia, 64; rejects Versailles Treaty, 65; withdraws from Supreme Allied Council, 66; and a way forward in Ireland, 67; Soviet trade with, 68; helps combat famine in Russia, 69; Jews of, 70; Ku Klux Klan in, 71, 72; stock market crashes in, 73, 74, 75; and naval disarmament, 76; and reparations, 77, 78, 79, 80; and the Chanak crisis (1922), 81; and war debts (1914–18), 82; sends earthquake relief to Japan (1923), 83; gives citizenship to American Indians, 84; first woman State Governor in, 85; art and music in, 86; and Nicaragua, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91; economic successes of (1926), 92; organized crime in, 93, 94; sends troops to China (1927), 95; and the prospect of civilian air travel, 96; concludes treaty with China (1928), 97; joins Permanent Court at The Hague, 98; aids Britain economically, 99; economic setbacks in, 100, 101; and wheat for China, 102; Depression in, 103, 104, 105; and Japan's invasion of Manchuria, 106; and Roosevelt's Presidency, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112; Jewish emigrants to, 113, 114; and the Soviet Union, 115; volunteers from, in Spain, 116; neutrality legislation of, 117; and Czechoslovakia, 118, 119; and France, 120; and the Second World War, 121, 122; aid to Britain from (1940), 123; to become 'the great arsenal of democracy', 124; and aid to Russia, 125; Hitler declares war on, 126; Japan attacks Pacific possessions of, 127, 128; fate of prisoners of war of, in Japanese captivity, 129, 130, 131, 132; Pacific battles of, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137; and the French North African landings, 138; and the bombing of Germany, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143; helps Tito, 144; and the defeat of Hitler, 145, 146, 147; and the D-Day Landings, 148; and the Warsaw Uprising, 149, 150; and the defeat of Germany, 151, 152, 153, 154; and the defeat of Japan, 155, 156, 157, 158; and the bombing of Japanese cities, 159, 160; and a Japanese suicide flying bomb, 161; and German rocket scientists, 162; and the surrender of Japan, 163; to act 'as a Great Power', 164; civil rights in, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174; and post-1945 Germany, 175; and post-1945 Austria, 176; and post-1945 Roumania, 177; and post-1945 Greece, 178; and the Marshall Plan, 179, 180; and the Cold War, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194; and the Berlin Blockade, 195; and Berlin divided, 196, 197, 198; and China (after 1948), 199, 200, 201, 202; and NATO, 203, 204, 205; and Korea, 206; and the Korean War, 207, 208; 209, 210, 211, 212; and South Korea, 213; and the nuclear confrontation, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219; and McCarthyism, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224; and Vietnam, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229; and Iran, 230; and Taiwan, 231; and British rule in Malaya, 232; life expectancy in, 233; and a polio vaccine, 234; and smoking, 235, 236; 'non-aligned' hostility to, 237; and nuclear energy, 238, 239; evolving prosperity in, 240; Disneyland in, 241; and the Suez Crisis, 242, 243; and the Hungarian Revolution, 244; 'Defence Highways' in, 245; influenza pandemic in (1957), 246; and space exploration, 247; and nuclear testing negotiations, 248; and jet air travel, 249, 250; and Guatemala, 251; and nuclear disarmament negotiations, 252; and men in space, 253, 254, 255; becomes militarily involved in Vietnam, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267; and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 268; and Kennedy's assassination, 269; and the Tokyo Olympics (1964), 270; signs Test Ban Treaty (1963), 271; signs Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), 272; and the Straits of Tiran, 273; and ballistic missile nuclear warfare, 274, 275; and Strategic Arms Limitation talks, 276, 277, 278, 279; and Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, 280, 281; and the Internet, 282; and Cambodia, 283, 284, 285; and Southern Rhodesia, 286, 287; and the 'pollution-free' car, 288; and lead poisoning, 289; and 'acid rain', 290; and Pakistan, 291; and Earth's resources, 292; and Chile, 293; and the October War (1973), 294; and Soviet Jewry, 295; and Vietnam after the Vietnam War, 296, 297; and Laos, 298; and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, 299; and micro-credit, 300; and the Vietnamese Boat People, 301, 302; and the Soviet Union's 'Backfire' bomber, 303; and its own 'Cruise' missile, 304; and the handicapped, 305; and Thailand, 306; and the 'Foxbat' Soviet fighter plane, 307; bicentennial of its independence, celebrated, 308, sends earthquake aid to Guatemala, 309; and the elimination of smallpox in Ethiopia, 310; Apple computers founded in, 311; Somalia appeals to, 312; Ethiopia turns against, 313; and the Middle East, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319; and Afghanistan, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324; and post Mao Tse-tung China, 325; and Uganda, 326; and Iran, 327, 328, 329; and the IRA, 330; and the Iran-Iraq war, 331; murder statistics in, 332; and a Soviet threat to Poland (1980), 333; and Poland, 334, 335, 336; opposes baby-milk protection code, 337; and the Falklands War, 338; and Lebanon, 339, 340; leases an Indian Ocean island, 341; and 'Star Wars', 342, 343; and Grenada, 344; and the Helsinki Agreement, 345; sends aid to Ethiopia, 346; and Gorbachev, 347; and arms sales, 348, 349; and the environment, 350, 351; and Angola, 352; and detente, 353, 354, 355; and nuclear disarmament, 356, 357; and the destruction of chemical weapons, 358; an aircraft on its way to, blown up over Scotland, 359; and Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, 360; and the Gulf War, 361; airlifts food to former Soviet Republics, 362, 363; and the Barcelona Olympics, 364; and Somalia, 365, 366, 367; global aid of, 368, 369; a global provider of arms, 370; signs chemical weapons convention, 371; and regional trade, 372; and Bosnia, 373, 374; Clinton's Presidency of, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381; and re-united Germany, 382; aids Palestinian Authority, 383; aids Mandela's South Africa, 384; and anti-personnel landmines, 385, 386; and Kosovo, 387; and the 'enlargement' of NATO, 388; helps Russia, 389; and NATO's war against Serbia, 390
United States Atomic Energy Commission: and the impossibility of a 'clean' bomb, 1
United States Census Bureau: tries to locate the world's 6,000 millionth inhabitant, 1
United States Film Service: established, 1
United States Legation (Budapest): refuge in, 1
United States Steel Corporation: formed, 1; expands, 2 United States Supreme Court: rules against segregation, 3
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): 1, 2; the fortieth anniversary of, 3
Universal Peace Conference (1901): meets, 1
University of California: violence at, 1
University of Wisconsin: student protest at, 1
Untouchables (Depressed Classes): seek constitutional reforms, 1; to be safeguarded, 2; Gandhi retires from politics, to work for, 3, 4; and Gandhi's assassination, 5
Upper Silesia: and a pretext for war, 1
Upper Volta: becomes independent, 1; moves to civilian rule, 2
Ural Mountains: a U-2 spy plane shot down over, 1
Uruguay: a naval chase ends in waters of, 1
Utah: and votes for women, 1
Utaka, Major-General: executed, in Ghana, 1
Uzbekistan: becomes independent, 1
V1 (flying bomb): Hitler launches, 1; and a Japanese suicide weapon, 2
V2 (rocket bomb): Hitler launches, 1, 2
VE (Victory in Europe) Day: 1
Valera, Eamon de: saved from execution, 1; leads Republicans, 2, 3; and the Irish Treaty (1921), 4
Valéry, Paul: 'so much uncertainty', 1
Valluy, General: in Vietnam, 1
Vance, Cyrus: and nuclear disarmament, 1
Vancouver: 'Habitat' in, 1
Vatican: Jews sheltered in, 1; 'Catholic' Communists excommunicated by, 2; an alleged spy of, 3; a Cardinal refused a passport to visit, 4; and the installation of Pope John Paul II, 5; and a prisoner in China, 6
Vaugoin, Karl: forms government, 1
Venezuela: sends earthquake help to Guatemala, 1
Vengeance and Sacred Hate Radio (Libya): and the Jews, 1
Verdun, Battle for (1916): 1, 2, 3, 4; a hero of, asks for an armistice (1940), 5
Verkhovski, General: confident he can revive warmaking, 1, 2
Versailles Treaty: signed, 1; comes into force, 2; and the Ruhr, 3; and reparations, 4, 5; denounced, 6; Germany breaches disarmament clauses of, 7, 8, 9, 10; Hitler denounces 'shame' of, 11; continued denunciations of, 12, 13, 14; German violations of, 15, 16; Germany denounces, 17; an integral part of, retained (1955), 18; and Namibia, 19
Vesuvius: erupts, 1
Vichy: Pétain heads French government at, 1; loses French North Africa, 2
Victor Emmanuel, King (of Italy): and Mussolini's 'March on Rome', 1; abdicates, 2
Victoria, Queen: dies, 1; her granddaughter narrowly avoids assassination, 2
Victoria Cross: Indians eligible for, 1
Videla, General: rules Argentina, 1
Vienna: a warning from, 1; demands in, 2; a Hungarian success in, recalled, 3; a demonstration in, 4; universal male suffrage in, 5; Ruthenian nationalism in, 6; Italian nationalism in, 7; Czech nationalism in, 8; end of caution in (1914), 9; a 'great moral victory' for, 10; and a Czech mutiny, 11; and peace negotiations (1918), 12, 13; plans for revolution in, 14; and 'German-Austria', 15; Hitler's view of Jews in, 16; riots in, 17; and arms shipments for Hungary, 18; rise of Fascism in, 19; demands for Anschluss (union with Germany) in, 20; and the Austro-German treaty (1930), 21; and the Austro-German Customs Union (1931), 22; an anti-Jewish protest march in, 23; Socialist strongholds in, attacked, 24; a failed seizure of power in, 25; a public execution in, 26; Soviet troops reach centre of, 27; placed under Four-Power control, 28; and an arrest in Moscow, 29; a treaty signed in, restores Austria's independence, 30; Khrushchev and Kennedy meet in, 31; Brezhnev and Carter meet in, 32; a Convention signed in, to protect the ozone layer, 33
Vietcong ('Vietnamese Communists'): military action against, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; and the Brinks Hotel bomb, 12; victory of, 13
Vietminh (Communist Vietnamese armed forces): in action against the French, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; in action against South Vietnamese and Americans, 8
Vietnam: first military actions of, 1; a 'general insurrection' ordered in, 2; Vietminh-French struggle in, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; partition of, 10; for subsequent index entries see North Vietnam and South Vietnam
Vietnam (the 'Unified State'): under Communist rule, 1, 2; Canada sends aid to, 3; drought in, 4; refugees in, 5; refugees from, 6; invades Cambodia, 7
Vietnam War: and France, introduction, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7; and the United States, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27; and television, introduction, 29; and newspaper coverage, 30, 31; and China, 32; and Thailand, 33; and El Salvador, 34; a veteran of, commands in Gulf War, 35; warplanes from, in NATO war against Serbia, 36
Vietnamese: deported by France, 1
Villedieu, Alexandre: his fate, and that of his pen, 1
Vilna (Vilnius, Wilno): a bishop in, removed, 1; German troops enter, 2; acquired by the Soviet Union, 3; arrests in, 4; Soviet troops in streets of, 5, 6, 7
Vimy Ridge: a monument at, 1
Vinh Yen: defended, 1
Vinnitsa: Hitler moves his headquarters to, 1
'Virgin Lands': a scheme for, in Kazakhstan, 1, 2
Virginia: desegregation in, 1; an atomic-powered aircraft carrier launched in, 2; a former Polish president's body returned to Poland from, 3
Vistula River: a murdered priest's body found in, 1
Vitez (Bosnia): and a war crimes trial, 1
Vlachs: in Macedonia, 1, 2
Vladivostok: mutiny in (1905), 1; further mutiny in (1906), 2; Ford-Brezhnev summit in (1974), 3
Vo Suu: his grim film, 1
Vojvodina (Yugoslavia): Hungarian minority in, 1
Volga River: anti-Bolshevik Russians advance to, 1; Stalin evacuates government offices to, 2; Germans reach (at Stalingrad), 3; Germans fail to regain (after Kursk), 4; dammed, 5; pollution near, 6
Volkogonov, Dmitri: and the Stalin-Mao meeting, 1
Volkswagen: launched, 1
Volosin, Father: declares Ruthene independence, then flees, 1
Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA): established, 1
Von Braun, Wernher: surrenders to the Americans, 1
Voronyanskaya, Yelizaveta: her cruel fate, 1
Vorster, John: praises police, 1
Voznesensky, Andrei: condemned as 'anti-Soviet', 1
Vukovar (Croatia): overrun by Serbs, 1
Vyborg: Duma moves to, 1
Vyshinsky, Andrei: presides over show trials, 1; demands executions, 2; and Soviet nuclear policy, 3
WHO: see index entry United Nations World Health Organization
Wailing Wall (Jerusalem): see index entry Western Wall
Wainwright, General: witnesses the surrender of Japan, 1
Wake Island (Pacific): fate of prisoners of war on, 1
Waldheim, Kurt: in wartime Greece, 1
Walesa, Lech: focuses Polish protests, 1, 2; awarded Nobel Peace Prize, 3; calls for greater liberalization, 4, 5; signs agreement with government, 6; becomes President, 7
Walker, General: 'We must fight to the end' (in Korea), 1; killed, 2
'Walkman': launched, 1
Wallace, George: opposes desegregation, 1
Wallachia: unrest in, 1
Walsh, Bishop James E.: arrested, in China, 1
Wang Yingzheng: arrested, 1
Wang Youcai: a human rights activist, arrested, 1; imprisoned, 2
Wannsee: and the 'Final Solution', 1
'War Guilt' clause: of the Versailles Treaty, 1, 2
War of Attrition (1970–1): between Egypt and Israel, 1
War on Poverty: cut back, because of the Vietnam War, 1
Ward, Major Guy: returns to captivity, 1
Warsaw: strikes in, 1; demands for autonomy in, 2; Red Army advances towards, 3; Red Army driven from, 4; Jews represented in parliament in, 5; Pilsudski marches on, 6; bombed, 7; Hitler in, 8; a ghetto established in, 9; deportations from, 10; ghetto revolt in, 11; an SS General killed in, 12; a Polish national uprising in, 13; Soviet forces enter, 14; 'large-scale arrest' in, 15; a conference in, on post-war Germany, 16; and a Soviet Marshal, 17; a Cardinal, arrested in, 18; the Warsaw Pact signed in, 19; Khrushchev flies to, 20; a reformist Party Congress in, 21; religious zeal in, 22; Pope John Paul II speaks in, 23; a priest from, murdered, 24; Gorbachev's promises in, 25; Communism crumbles in, 26; a former Polish president's body returned to, 27 Warsaw Pact (1955): created, 28; and the Hungarian revolution, 29, 30; manoeuvres of, 31, 32, 33; bases of, and the Czechoslovak revolution, 34, 35; and detente, 36; and the collapse of Communism, 37; Hungary withdraws from, 38; dissolved, 39; former powers of, drawn into NATO, 40
Warsaw University: a professor at, urges greater freedoms for Poland, 1
Waruhiu, Chief: killed, 1
Washington DC: and a telegraphic link, 1; and the Philippines, 2; and a naval warning, 3; and Germany's desire for an armistice (1918), 4; a naval disarmament treaty signed in, 5; Lindbergh flies to Mexico City from, 6; war veterans protest march in, 7; National Archives in, opened, 8; and Allied war aims, 9; Madame Chiang's appeal in, 10; Truman's historic journey to (1950), 11; and MacArthur's dismissal, 12; American military deaths in Vietnam announced from (1962), 13; within missile range of Cuba, 14; Martin Luther King speaks in, 15; Kennedy's body flown back to, 16; an anti-Vietnam War suicide in, 17; and the Great Society, 18; anti-Vietnam War protesters in, 19; and a 'hot line' talk between Johnson and Kosygin, 20; riots and a curfew in, 21; nuclear non-proliferation treaty ratified in, 22; protesters converge on, 23; anti-Vietnam war demonstration in, 24; and the Watergate scandal, 25; Jimmy Carter distances himself from, 26; Sadat and Begin in, 27; the 'Reagan Plan' announced in, 28; an admission in, on 'acid rain', 29; Reagan meets UNITA leader in, 30; Reagan meets Gorbachev in, 31; and an agreement to ban toxic waste, 32; Bush meets Gorbachev in, 33; and the importance of Kuwaiti oilfields, 34; Israeli-Palestinian talks in, 35; Rabin and Hussein sign peace declaration in, 36; a Muslim-Croat federation negotiated in, 37; Mandela in, secures promises of aid, 38; Israel-Palestinian agreement signed in, 39; Arafat and Netanyahu meet in, 40; an environmental success announced in, 41
Washington Naval Treaty: signed (1922), 1; abrogated by Japan (1934), 2
Washington Post: opposes 'savage and senseless' bombing, 1
Washkansky, Louis: the first heart transplant, 1
Watergate: an American political scandal, 1, 2
Waterman's fountain pen: a saga concerning, 1
Watson, James: and DNA, 1
Watts (Los Angeles): a riot in, 1
We Shall Overcome (song): President Johnson echoes, 1
Weaver, Robert C.: enters the American Cabinet, 1
Wedgwood, Colonel: warns about dictators, 1
Weimar: National Assembly at, 1; candidate for Chancellor of, 2; democratic government of, 3; and emergency legislation, 4; and the Rhineland, 5
Weizman, Ezer: calls for a halt in Israeli-Palestinian talks, 1
Wembley Stadium (London): Live Aid in, 1
Wenceslas Square (Prague): and a 'peaceful revolution', 1
West Bank (of the River Jordan): annexed by Transjordan, 1; occupied by Israel, 2, 3; political future of, 4, 5, 6; Israeli settlements in, 7, 8, 9; Rabin seeks conciliation on, 10; and the Intifada, 11; Palestinian self-rule in, 12, 13, 14, 15
West Berlin: and refugees from the East, 1, 2, 3, 4; Kennedy visits, 5; sealed off from East Berlin, 6
West Germany: to be established, 1; and European unity, 2; established, 3; admitted to Council of Europe, 4; and the European Defence Community, 5; East German refugees in, 6; joins NATO, 7, 8; draws closer to France, 9; and a 'single market', 10; Austria forbidden to join, 11; military service in, 12; and the Common Market, 13; East German refugees continue to reach, 14; to receive American nuclear missiles, 15; and the Berlin crisis (of 1961), 16; and a Soviet H-bomb test, 17; and the United States, 18; Czechs flee to, 19; releases imprisoned Palestinians, 20; a medical advance in, 21; Solzhenitsyn flown to, 22; aids poorest countries, 23; and the future of Berlin, 24; Somalia appeals to, 25; boycotts Moscow Olympics, 26; and the Falklands War, 27; and 'acid rain', 28; and Chernobyl, 29; mass East German flight to, 30; its border with East Germany to be opened, 31
West Indies Federation: and the passing of the British Empire, 1
West Irian (Indonesia): earthquake in, 1
West Timor: part of Indonesia, 1; East Timorese flee to, 2
Western European Union: established (1954), 1
Western Sahara: refugees from, 1
Western (Wailing) Wall (Jerusalem): a dispute at, 1
Westminster Abbey: and the murders in Ireland, 1
Westminster Hall (London): a bomb detonated outside, 1
Westmoreland, General: wants 'a good offence' in Vietnam, 1; calls for more American troops, 2; sceptical of bombing policy, 3; sceptical of 'the enemy's hopes', 4; his successor, wants action in Cambodia, 5
Weygand, General: advises Polish army, 1
White, Major Edward: walks in space, 1
White House (Washington): and the 1929 stock market crash, 1; a Cross-Channel landing agreed at, 2; a Vietnam bombing plan put forward at, 3; within missile range of Cuba, 4; and Johnson's comment on Vietnam in, 5; Johnson returns to, as an elected president, 6; criticism of Vietnam War in, 7; riots near, 8; a denunciation of the My Lai massacre from, 9; protesters converge on, 10; and the search for an end to the war in Vietnam, 11; and Watergate, 12; the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty signed in, 13; Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles signed at, 14
White Sea: and a canal built by slave labour, 1, 2; and 'Cruise' missiles, 3
white slave traffic: and the League of Nations, 1
Whitehead, Sir Edgar: in Southern Rhodesia, 1
'Whites': and the Russian Civil War, 1
whooping cough: death of children from, 1
Wiener Neustadt: Fascists and Socialists march in, 1
Wilhelm Gustloff (transport ship): and the worst maritime disaster of the Second World War, 1
Wilhelmina, Queen (of Holland): finds refuge in Britain, 1
William II, Kaiser: and China, 1; and the Poles, 2; and the Hottentots, 3; a naval 'victor', 4; and naval rivalry, 5, 6; and Alsace-Lorraine, 7; and the path to war (1913–14), 8, 9, 10, 11; and submarine sinkings (1915), 12; urged to seek a negotiated peace (1915), 13; and Verdun, 14; and the war at sea, 15; seeks stronger commanders, 16; his war aims, 17, 18; urged to negotiate peace, 19; hopes for military recovery, 20; urged to abdicate, 21; flees to Holland, 22; his son supports Nazi Party, 23
William, Crown Prince: and a pioneering flight, 1
William of Wied, Prince: becomes ruler of Albania, 1
Williams, Betty: creates a peace movement, 1
Williams, Freddie: and the computer age, 1
Williams, Jody: a campaigner against landmines, 1
Willingdon, Lord: in India, 1
Wilson, Harold: resigns, 1; elected Prime Minister, 2; and Southern Rhodesia, 3; and Vietnam, 4; and Northern Ireland, 5, 6
Wilson, President Woodrow: and the Philippines, 1; and the coming of war in 1914, 2, 3, 4; and the Lusitania, 5; his Peace Note (1916), 6; and the path to war (1917), 7, 8; his 'peace programme' (1918), 9; and the German request for an armistice, 10; and the League of Nations, 11, 12
Wilton-Marshall, O. E.: and political prisoners in Guinea, 1
Windsor (England): and an air mail experiment, 1
Winona (Minnesota): Truman challenges Eisenhower in, 1
Winston Smith: 'a stain that must be wiped out', 1
Winter Palace (St Petersburg): violence at, 1; revolutionaries seize, 2
'Winter War' (between Russia and Finland): casualties of, 1
wireless telegraphy: early successes of, 1, 2
Wirth, Dr: denounces German extremism, 1
Witbois: rebel, 1, 2, 3
Witwatersrand University: integration ends at, 1
Wizard of Oz: opening night of, 1
Wlodawa: Jews sent to their deaths from, 1
Wojtyla, Cardinal: elected Pope, 1; for subsequent index entries see John Paul II, Pope
women: votes for, 1; working conditions of, 2; and the first woman Cabinet Minister, 3; and the first woman Mayor, 4; and the first woman State Governor (United States), 5; and the Klavana (Ku Klux Klan), 6
'Wonder Bread': marketed, 1
Woods, Donald: 'Too much has been hidden for too long', 1
Woolworths: bombed, 1
Works Progress Administration (WPA): and the New Deal, 1
World Bank: protects rainforests, 1
World Commission on Environment and Development: its report (1987), 1
World Conservation Union: warns of dangers to the world's creatures, 1
World Court: see index entry Permanent Court of International Justice
World Cup: and a 'television' assassination, 1
World Disarmament Conference (1933): 1, 2
World Festival of Negro Arts: first held (in 1966), 1
World Monetary Fund: and Ghana, 1
World Psychiatric Association: an appeal to, from Moscow, 1
World Wide Fund for Nature: reveals extent of forest fires, 1; saves rainforest, 2
World Wide Web (www): revolutionizes global communications, 1; in China, 2
Wozniak, Stephen: and Apple computers, 1
Wright, Orville: a pioneer, 1, 2
Wright, Wilbur: a pioneer, 1
Wright aeroplanes: and bombing experiments, 1
Wuhan (China): a thousand killed in (1967), 1
Wuppertal: bombed, 1
Wyoming: and votes for women, 1
Wyszynski, Cardinal: arrested, 1; criticized, 2; refused passport, 3
X-ray mammography: introduced, for breast cancer, 1
Xu Wenli: calls for democracy, 1; imprisoned, 2
Yagoda, G. G.: brought to trial, 1
Yakovlev, Yakov: keen on collectivization, 1
Yale University: an expert on China in, 1
Yalu River: and the Korean War, 1, 2, 3, 4
Yangtse River: overflows, 1
Yellow River: floods, 1
Yeltsin, Boris: appointed as a modernizer, 1; removed, 2; defeats Communist Party candidate, 3; denounces violence against Lithuania, 4; bans the Communist Party, 5; opposes anti-Gorbachev coup, 6; replaces Hammer and Sickle, 7; signs treaty with Mitterand, 8; signs START II, 9; defeats opponents, using tanks, 10; his main economic goal, denounced, 11; and Chechenya, 12, 13, 14; becomes President of Russia, 15; Clinton meets, 16; illnesses of, 17; promises 'touch measures' against separatists, 18; succeeded as President by Vladimir Putin, 19
Yemen: Italian treaty with, 1; Roman Catholics murdered in, 2
Yen Hsi-san, General: fails to capture Peking, 1
Yenan: 'Long March' reaches, 1; Mao Tse-tung's base at, 2
Yenukidze, Avel: shot, 1
Yerevan (Armenia): demonstrations in, 1, 2
Yesenin, Sergei: commits suicide, 1
Yevtushenko, Yevgeny: made to apologize, 1
Yokohama: earthquake in, 1
York: bombed, 1
Young, John: manoeuvres in space, 1
Young, Owen D.: and reparations, 1
Young Turks: revolt, 1; call for a parliament, 2; challenged, 3; in Macedonia, 4
Younger, Jimmy: 'slaughter', in Spain, 1
Younghusband, Colonel: advances into Tibet, 1
Ypres: Germans fail to capture (1914–15), 1, 2; third Battle of (1917), 3, 4; Germans seek to capture (1918), 5; fourth Battle of (1918), 6
Yuan, Allen: imprisoned, in China, 1
Yucca Flats (Nevada): and an atomic bomb test, 1, 2
Yudenich, General: leads anti-Bolshevik Russians, 1, 2
Yugoslav Embassy (Budapest): refuge in, 1
Yugoslavia: in being, 1; in prospect, 2; acquires land and reparations, 3; withdraws from Carinthia, 4; forms Anti-Bolshevik League, 5; challenged by Italy, 6; rejects border changes, 7; internal divisions in, 8; royal dictatorship in, 9; gives up claims against Austria, 10; and the Little Entente, 11; and Hungary, 12; and the Spanish Civil War, 13; Roosevelt's question to Hitler about, 14; German invasion of, 15, 16; reprisals in, 17, 18; resistance in, 19, 20; Communist rule in, 21, 22, 23; Soviet accusations against, 24, 25; and Bulgaria, 26; and the Hungarian Revolution, 27; and Poland, 28; and Chernobyl, 29; and Kosovo, 30, 31, 32; the world's 5,000 millionth inhabitant born in, 33; ethnic divisions in, 34; disintegrates, 35; ethnic violence in, 36; for subsequent index entries see Serbia (formerly Yugoslavia)
Yunus, Muhammad: and the Grameen ('village') Bank, 1
Zagreb: fighting in, 1; demonstrations in, 2, 3; riots in, 4; German army enters (1941), 5; the world's 5,000 millionth inhabitant born in (1987), 6; troops advance towards, 7; reports of a massacre reach, 8; not to rule over Bosnia, 9
Zaire (formerly Congo): and the rising price of oil, 1; unrest in, 2; refugees from, 3; refugees in, 4, 5; and AIDS, 6; protesters in, killed, 7; Hutus flee to, 8; Tutsis fight Hutus in, 9; for subsequent index entries see Democratic Republic of Congo
Zakka Khels: rebel, 1
Zambia: in prospect (1959), 1; and an oil crisis (1975), 2; and the independence struggle in Rhodesia (1977), 3
Zavgayev, Doku: overthrown, 1; leads autonomous Chechenya, 2
Zeiss optical works: removed to Russia, 1
Zepa (Bosnia): besieged, 1
Zeppelin, Count: and his airship, 1
Zeppelin airship: launched, 1; advocated for invasion, 2; in commercial service, 3
Zhirinovsky, Vladimir: wins extremist vote, 1; and Chechenya, 2
Zhivkov, Todor: resigns, 1; put on trial, 2
Ziegfeld Follies: open, 1
Zimbabwe: black majority rule in, 1; a massacre in, 2
Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU): challenges white rule, 1, 2
Zinoviev, Alexander: satirizes Soviet society, 1
Zinoviev, Grigorii: outmanoeuvred by Stalin, 1; humiliated, 2; accused, 3; arrested, 4; eliminated, 5
Zionism: and Palestine, 1, 2
Zlatoust (Russia): unrest in, 1
Zone of Straits: Allies control (1918–22), 1, 2; Turkish challenge to, 3
Zulus: revolt, 1; clash with United Democratic Front, 2, 3; clash with African National Congress, 4; apologize, 5
Zurich: an airline crashes near, 1
Zyklon-B (poison gas): experiments with, 1
Zyuganov, Gennadii: a Communist, comes third, 1; comes second, 2
聚合中文网 阅读好时光 www.juhezwn.com
小提示:漏章、缺章、错字过多试试导航栏右上角的源