1975-1988
CHAPTER 1
There be many shapes of mystery;
And many things God brings to bear,
Past Hope or Fear.
And the end man looketh for cometh not,
And a path is there where no man thought.
-Euripides
Tess and I began to reach the end that blizzardy Christmas Eve in the country in 1966, the night it all ended for Gilly.
My first meeting with Gilly in Vienna went back thirty-four years. We had not become friends until fifteen years later, after the war, when we were both back from our long time in Europe. But only friends. Not more. Then suddenly, to our complete surprise, only a year or so before this fateful Christmas Eve, we had fallen in love. We had resisted it. I did not want to break up my marriage, and she did not want to play any part in it. But our resistance crumbled.
There had been no hint in the beginning that we would end up this way. She had come to Vienna in the fall of 1932 to write a novel; I had been stationed there since 1929 as a correspondent for the Chicago Tribune. I did not meet her until the Christmas holidays that year when John and Frances Gunther gave a small party for her. She was certainly a very attractive American woman-tall, statuesque, with bright hazel eyes and brown hair and a radiant personality. She spoke well and was full of life. Frances had told me that Gilly had come to Vienna not only to write but also to ponder marrying a Polish prince whom she had met and become engaged to nine years before when they were students at the University of Grenoble. The parents of both of them had opposed their marrying; and Gilly, in despair and defiance, had married a young American writer with whom she soon broke up. She and her Polish prince had kept in touch, and now in Vienna she was trying to decide whether she wanted to marry him if he again proposed, as he seemed on the point of doing. I do not remember having much talk with her that evening at the Gunthers'. During the Christmas holidays that year I was preoccupied by my own situation. I had just been fired by the Chicago Tribune; and Tess, my Viennese wife of less than a year, and I were trying to decide how to survive in a world already wracked by the Great Depression. I do remember that Gilly struck me as much too sophisticated and too much the polished New Yorker to spend the rest of her life in the stagnant, primitive, backward world of rural Poland-even in a castle with a charming prince.
The prince had telephoned her a few days later, on New Year's Eve, and again proposed and again she had accepted. They were married in London the following summer, after which she set off with her bridegroom to begin life in Poland as a princess. She later wrote of that experience in a book, Polish Profile, published in 1940 and in a second, franker book, A Matter of Life and Death.
As with many marriages there was early disappointment and disillusionment. Gilly would write in the second book that "precisely when and precisely why the light went out and the house, once warm, now grew cold" no one could say. But she came to believe herself that the "loss of my husband's love [came] after our first child was born." Loss of love does not necessarily end a marriage, especially in the old, rigid, very Catholic aristocracy in Poland; and the American princess and her Polish prince lived on together in Poland. She had another child and gradually accustomed herself, as far as a young American woman could, to the isolated, narrow, routine life of the country's nobility.
The people the couple associated with were so isolated, she later said, that they did not see the war coming or realize that Poland would be its first casualty, though that was plain to everyone but an idiot after Hitler consolidated his hold on Germany and turned abroad for new conquests. It also was obvious that Poland could not afford the luxury of being at odds with both of its giant neighbors, Germany and the Soviet Union. Obvious, that is, to all but the privileged class.
Gilly herself, she later wrote, was blissfully apolitical and, like the Poles, did not at first see the threatening clouds gather over central Europe. She was rudely awakened one day in March 1938, while on a visit to Vienna to consult a doctor. It happened to be the day Hitler marched in and took over Austria. She suddenly became aware that the Nazi dictator wanted much more than Austria. Czechoslovakia, now surrounded by Germans on three sides, would be next and then Poland, when she too became outflanked. But Gilly was not listened to when she returned. The Poles would continue to blind themselves to the very end.
That end came for Gilly and her Polish family in the humid, warm days of September 1939, when Hitler's armies smashed through Poland in three weeks. She and her two children escaped from their castle in Silesia to Rumania and eventually to Paris, where her husband, after Poland had been gobbled up by Germany and the Soviet Union, joined her.
I had not been in touch with Gilly after she left Vienna to get married. We had met, after all, casually; and it was no wonder that she forgot me, though the remembrance of her beauty, her charm, her bright, original mind, lingered with me. I too had been in Vienna the night of the Anschluss when the Nazis took over; but I did not know until years later, when she told me, that she too had been there that hectic night.
One day in 1947 in New York, I received a business letter from her in which she addressed me as "Mr. Shirer," a total stranger. She was then publicity director of a New York publishing firm, and she was asking me for a blurb for a book by a friend of mine which they were publishing. With the blurb I sent a note to which I attached a postscript:
Are you not the same Virgilia Peterson whom I met at the Gunthers' in Vienna in 1932, who was on her way to Warsaw?
"Yes," she answered, "I am the female on her way to Poland whom you saw at the Gunthers." She added that she had also seen me recently at a party "at the Plaza."
With that breaking of the ice we finally met again in New York and once more became casual acquaintances, meeting occasionally at parties and literary gatherings and exchanging the time of day. We got better acquainted after she invited me to participate in a popular TV program, The Author Meets the Critic, which she began moderating in 1952 and at which she was very good. This was a time when the McCarthy hysteria had put me down if not out, and I found that Gilly was very sympathetic to those of us caught in that bind. Against great opposition from her sponsors she had insisted on devoting one program to a book of mine. Later I learned that Gilly was largely responsible for my getting the National Book Award in 1960 for The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. She had badgered her colleagues on the judges panel into voting for the book.
By that time Gilly had divorced her Polish prince and married Governeur Paulding, a magazine editor and writer and one of the most civilized men I ever knew. Tess and I began to see something of them. We four became good friends. I remember once, when "Govey" lay dying of cancer and Gilly was spending all her time, night and day, in caring for him and easing his slow, painful exit from life and working herself into exhaustion and a near breakdown, that Tess insisted I take Gilly out to a lively little French restaurant we knew to help relieve her of her tension.
"Govey" died a few weeks after, in August of 1965. Though she could not know it, nor could I nor anyone else, Gilly herself had but sixteen months to live. In response to a note of condolence she answered that when she had cleared up Govey's affairs, she was going away for a couple of weeks and then would return to New York to "take up whatever life I can lay my hands on."
I no longer remember, if I ever knew, just when or how Gilly and I, after so long and beautiful a platonic friendship, fell in love. All I know is that it happened suddenly, sometime in the early part of 1966. All at once we saw in each other something we had not seen for thirty-four years and felt some powerful chemistry that had not existed before, transforming us from old friends to lovers. It seemed absurd, unreal. We could not understand it. And we fought to repress it. We would swear not to see any more of each other until our passions had cooled and reason had restored us to sanity. But it was no use. We began to contrive to see each other more and more frequently. Any excuse. Any lie. Mutual friends in New York put their country home in Connecticut, which they rarely used, at our disposal. It was not far from my farm. We snatched as many days and nights there as we could.
But in the midst of the explosion of a great love, we were sorely troubled. Difficult as life for me was at home, and increasingly so, I still felt a loyalty to my wife. I did not want to abandon her after so long a marriage-some thirty-five years by now. True, we no longer had to stay together for the sake of the children. Both Inga and Linda had graduated from college, married, and were living their own lives. Inga's first child had come in August that year, making us for the first time grandparents.
On the other hand, I was deeply in love with Gilly and wanted to share the rest of my life with her. She herself felt miserable about my breaking up a marriage for her. But as the year progressed she apparently decided she wanted all of me, whatever the consequences. I failed to notice this, though probably she told me. Finally that fall I told her that I did not yet want to break up my marriage but that I would try to see as much of her as possible.
"But why," she would ask, "do you want to continue a marriage when love has gone out of it?" And I would remember what she had written in A Matter of Life and Death when the love went out of her marriage to her Prince Charming. "There is only one certainty: No marriage, when dead to either participant, can be raised again." And on love: "Love comes and goes willy-nilly as the wind.…And when it is gone it is gone for good."
I realize now I was insensitive to her feelings that fall. We saw more of each other those autumn weeks than ever before, usually at our friends' farmhouse. It obviously was not enough for either of us, but especially for her. But Gilly had a Spartan quality about her and she did not complain. And I, in my ignorance and complacency, was not fully aware of what she wanted. I seem actually to have been somewhat blind to the depth of her feelings for me. I would learn this only when it was too late, from friends, and from a final letter she wrote a few minutes before the end. One old and close friend of Gilly's had invited us down to her place in the West Indies for the Christmas holidays that year. Gilly had dashed off a letter to her on December 22, the friend wrote me, saying "that you and she would not be coming down to visit because of your book.…She spoke of not being able to leave you even for a short ten days."
In my thickheadedness I had not realized that Gilly's devotion had reached such a pitch. We talked over our plight during two or three days at the friends' country place just before Christmas. I told Gilly that I would have to spend Christmas at the farm with my family. The children would be coming up for the holiday. I promised Gilly that we would get together during the week and perhaps have New Year's together. She seemed to accept this, or so I thought. She would spend Christmas then with her daughter and son-in-law and their young child at their country retreat not far from our friends' farmhouse. I would drop in on them Christmas day. We exchanged presents and parted. I had no idea how unhappy she was. She had not been exactly joyous as we said good-bye, but neither was she melancholy or, so far as I could see, unduly depressed.
***
It began to snow early that afternoon; and as the day darkened into Christmas Eve, it had turned into a blizzard, with a raging wind that piled the deepening snow high into drifts. Two or three times that evening we went out to shovel a place before the kitchen door and also to watch the blinding storm. There was something awesome about it and beautiful. We had our Christmas Eve dinner and later sat around the fire and opened presents as we had done nearly every Christmas Eve since acquiring the farm nineteen years before. It was still home, sentimentally at least, to the children. And this was a special evening in the country they said they would always remember. Having lived so long as a sort of vagabond in my early years as a roving correspondent in Europe and Asia, never really having a home, at least for long, and rarely in it, I had savored these holidays with the family on the farm after I returned for good and settled down. Perhaps I had grown sentimental about them, but I could not help it. They gave me most of what happiness I knew. If only one could keep this-and the other, too. I did think of Gilly that evening. I fretted that I could not steal upstairs and phone her. But there was no telephone at her daughter's place.
Still, I felt quite happy and content that blizzardy evening. After the presents we lingered by the fire, taking turns reading from Dickens's Christmas Carol, as we had done each Christmas Eve since the children were tots, and then talking, sentimentally no doubt, about earlier holidays on the farm and earlier blizzards that sometimes had left us snowbound, as this one threatened to do. It was another good Christmas Eve, I thought to myself, as finally, around 2 A.M., we broke up and went to bed.
It was late afternoon on Christmas Day when the telephone rang and Gilly's daughter said that her mother had killed herself during the snowy night. I could not believe it; and when it had sunk in on me, I found my vocal chords were paralyzed. I tried to ask what in God's name had happened, but I could not get the words out. "I'll tell you more later," the daughter said, "when we've all recovered a little."
Whatever happened that Christmas Eve with her daughter and son-in-law in the country, Gilly at some point set off in the wild blizzard through the drifting snow for our friends' farmhouse two miles away. How she was able to stumble in the dark through the deep snow up that steep road for two miles we never learned. If only our friends, who out of kindness and generosity had lent us the use of their house, had been there Christmas Eve, as they usually were. But they had remained in New York. Gilly had a key and took refuge in the house. And if it had been only that: a place of refuge. There was a telephone there; and she could have rung me, and I could have talked to her and, if one could get through the snowdrifts in a car, come to her. But she had not.
Sometime after midnight the storm subsided; the snow stopped falling; the wind died down, and Gilly's son-in-law, his wife told me, set off for the house to see if she was all right. He knocked at the door. He tried another and knocked there. If only she had answered. If only he had broken the door down. Instead, he assumed his mother-in-law had gone to bed and did not want to be disturbed. When he and his wife returned early on Christmas morning, it was too late. When there was no response to their knocking, they found a key at a neighbor's, walked in, and found Gilly dead in bed. She had swallowed a bottle of sleeping pills.
It was no consolation to remember that Gilly once before had tried to kill herself and had nearly succeeded. She had written frankly about it in her last book. It should have been a warning. I should have kept it in mind. But then she had publicly vowed in the last moving pages of the book that it would never happen again, that henceforth she would not forget "that my life belongs not to me but to whatever lives it has touched and touches."
And even though on that first occasion she had swallowed a bottle of pills that surely would have killed her in a short time, she had on taking them telephoned the man she loved, who immediately had telephoned her estranged Polish husband, and they both had raced through the traffic of New York City, got her into an ambulance, and rushed her to a hospital in time.
Why on this Christmas Eve she did not telephone me, I shall never know. She did not say in the hastily scrawled note she left for me. But she explained some things.
You will have to go through a bad moment, but I have seen how you rebound, and you have the blessing of your work. Don't imagine it is your fault. You are the center-I suppose-of the dark mosaic of my mind, but there are lots of other things beside the absurdity of the "situation." I was not made for triangles, I have discovered. I am an all or nothing-todos y nada-person that leads me to this tiresomely inconvenient act. Like you said, it seems a bit drastic. But how could you know that I am not as "strong" as you figured I was and expected, and, yes, demanded of me to be?
I think it was [your] not calling me in New York that made me understand, finally, that in your life, in fact, I am expendable. So okay, that's natural enough but being expendable, I am now spent….
This note, by the way, is NOT a "whine."
Anyway our times together have been wonderful. You are a [illegible word] and as overwhelmingly sweet and giving as the first movement of the Brahms 4th….
But I am, quite simply, too tired to go on-and only the conviction that I had another book in me would have justified the effort of every new day-but I have not that conviction. All the same, you have been the sun, the evening sun, and I go down in its blaze.
She had reached the bottom of the page. Scrawled on the side of the paper was one more sentence.
"If only once you had 'come flying.'"
If only she had held off for another ten months! But that would have been, I realized too late, beyond her weakening power.
***
As I sat alone in a pew in the St. Jean Baptiste Church on Lexington Avenue in New York on the chilly but sunny morning of January 3, 1967, during the memorial mass for Gilly, I knew that I would never fully recover from this sudden and final separation from her. And walking down Lexington Avenue toward home with heavy heart, I felt I could not be saved by my marriage because I could not save it. It was past saving. Gilly's sad and precipitous end and our respective reactions to it brought home to me, and I think to Tess, that we could not go on the rest of the way together.
***
The scenes which had taken place from the beginning but for long had been bearable had in the last few years become devastating to Tess and me. In the past couple of years they had reached a frequency and intensity that made a decent life together impossible and a separation necessary if we were to save ourselves. Over the last two summers on the farm, especially, there were confrontations that would string out all night until both of us were utterly exhausted. As dawn broke, I would gather up the manuscript of the France book, along with folders of the most important notes and documents, put them into a large suitcase, throw it into the trunk of the car to make sure they would not be destroyed, and strike out for some haven, an old inn or a squalid motel or some isolated spot in the woods by a lake in search of some peace and quiet, fighting to get my breath back, to calm down and to stave off a nervous breakdown.
Finally, on the afternoon of November 3, 1967, in desperation, I fled for good. It saved, I believe, not only my own life but that of my long-suffering wife. Still, the parting was a terrible wrench. We had been together, in good times and bad, and all over the world, for thirty-six years. Despite our difficulties and my own failings that contributed so much to them, I had somehow hoped we could go on together to the end, however near or far-off that might be. I was sixty-three; Tess was fifty-seven. It was a vain hope and, as I see now, a foolish one. There are times and circumstances when it is more civilized and, yes, I believe, more decent and moral, to break up a marriage that is destroying both partners, than to continue on in utter misery until one or both are broken. There are few things worse in life than a marriage poisoned beyond hope of any cure. When love and tolerance and respect are gone and replaced by poisonous hate, a marriage is finished, and it is evil, in my opinion, to prolong it.
The trauma of getting a divorce was not spared us. Not the usual sordid haggling over money. Not the wrangling of the lawyers, whose fees year after year soaked up much of our modest lifetime savings. Not the bitter recriminations. Not even the lies, as when Tess told the children during the first months of painful separation that I had not left her a cent to live on, whereas the truth was that she was receiving half my income. (The children had castigated me for my foul behavior and offered to send her what sums they could spare to keep her, they said, from starving.) But who was I to complain of lies, I who had lied so often about other women in my life?
Finally, after nearly three years of separation, there came an end to the bickering-and an end to the marriage.
Lenox, Saturday, July 25, 1970…After two days of wrangling by our respective lawyers in New Haven (Thursday, all day; yesterday from 1:30 P.M. to 6) Tess and I finally came to a parting of the ways. Formal agreements, which took more than two years to hammer out (and cost enormous attorneys' fees) were signed for the separation, and Tess agreed to fly to Mexico next week to get the divorce. Both of us were exhausted by the two-day ordeal….
Instead of the relief I thought I would feel at being free at last from this marriage…I feel depressed and sad….
There is an ache at casting off finally from Tess. Some of my sentiments I put in a letter to her today, which I attach to this. We had a full, stormy, meaningful life together and I regret that she was unable (as I see it) to let it continue on a tolerable level….
At New Haven this week, there was no bitter recrimination from either of us. Only at the last minute did she appear as if she might break down, after all the documents were signed and she turned on my lawyer bitterly for holding up the agreements until she carried out her unwritten promise to get an immediate Mexican divorce.…She resented deeply our "distrust" in her word, as she put it….
The parting was sad, to me. She stalked out, barely able to control her feelings. I feared she might not be able to drive home as a heat wave had suddenly struck. But obviously…she would not accept an offer (from me) to drive her home. We bid good-bye at the door of the office, and she went off alone, a forlorn, unhappy figure, and I wanted to weep that it had all ended this way.
That was my diary, or a part of it. I also got off to Tess a letter.
Lenox, Saturday, July 25, 1970
Dear Tessie:
It was very sad for me, the parting yesterday in the heat of ugly New Haven. Whatever has happened it was depressing to come to an end after so long a time of a shared life that saw so much over many continents that was meaningful and exciting and joyous.
You have often asked how I could forget it. But of course I never forgot, nor could I. A shared experience of such magnitude over so many years is stamped indelibly on any two people of any sensitivity.…I kept thinking of it yesterday afternoon-and of how the parting ever came-as the two lawyers haggled over dollars and cents….
I am sorry about the strain to you at the very end.…It was none of my doing….
I do not believe that love between a man and woman, however flawed by the cruelties of life and by their own mistakes and shortcomings, ever dies. Mine for you will not, ever.…Despite all our problems and the impossibilities of the later years, we had a rich life together and fuller than most people will ever have or know. This cannot be lost, no matter what happens. It remains part of one, of both persons. It cannot be wiped out by the signing of piles of documents the lawyers have thought up….
I wish you well, much happiness, and your state will always be of concern to me far beyond the obligations assumed in writing and duly signed yesterday.…Of immediate import, I hope you recover from the ordeal we've gone through together in the last days, especially the last two in New Haven.
Love,
Bill
On July 31, I noted in my diary receipt of a note from Tess saying she would be flying to Mexico for the divorce that very day. The diary ends: "I feel an awful void, a deep ache in the heart."
I saw Tess again on August 6 at the farm shortly after she returned from Mexico.
Lenox, Wednesday, August 6…We had a very good and long talk at the farm over sherry and then a sumptuous lunch she prepared: a Coquilles St.-Jacques followed by the wonderful meat and macaroni dish she learned to do our year-off in Spain. I felt quite close to her again.…I kept thinking what a failure it was for the both of us not to have been able to resolve our differences those last few years.
Packed a dozen cases of papers and books in a U-Haul van I had brought along and departed late in the afternoon, sad at the finality of the breakup but happy that we had had this decent day together.
***
Lenox, Wednesday, August 26…Again to the farm to help movers load rest of books, papers and tractor and farm machinery, which Tess suggested I might as well take since she cannot use. Stayed on for another pleasant lunch.
***
Lenox, Friday, August 28…To farm to spend the day with Inga and her two girls, whom I had not seen for nearly three years.…Deirdre, now 7, had changed immensely from a babyish girl to a handsome young thing, and very sensitive. Caitlin, more outgoing, who had been a crawling baby last time I saw her, now at 4 was very interesting and attractive. I had a fine time playing with them and afterward lunch with Tess and Inga. Much good talk….
I bid farewell for the last time to the farm, which had brought so much pleasure and relaxation to my wife and children and me for twenty years, a place where I had renewed my roots with the soil and the fields and the woods and written the better part of most of my books. In a diary entry on New Year's Eve, 1970, I would recall the
late summer day at the farm when I fetched my last books and papers and we sat on the lawn looking over the fields I loved so deeply and had worked so rather hard on, having a drink and later the splendid lunch she prepared with the fine, dry, white Burgundy wine.
And I recalled too
another such scene in October in New York, fetching the books and papers there, and having my last look at the lovely place we had on the East River, and more good drinks and a superb dinner and wine and much good talk until for a while I wondered how all this had happened-my leaving, finally, seemed so unreal-and she telling me the next morning when I came with the movers that she could not stand another such meeting.…I suppose one never fully gets over such a split-up after being together so long. But why should one?
A year went by:
Lenox, Monday, February 1, 1971…Tess called from New York to ask if "a little thing" she had sent arrived. It hadn't. It came out after some talk that it had to do with our wedding anniversary.…We would have had 40 years together yesterday, married, if it had lasted.
***
Lenox, Wednesday, February 3…The anniversary present arrived this morning. A silver-banded Dunhill pipe, with my initials engraved on the silver band…the most beautiful pipe I've ever had.…I phoned Tess in New York and thanked her.
***
Lenox, Tuesday, February 23…67 today!…Yesterday an expensive pipe bowl (Dunhill, N.Y.) from Tess. (She had already sent a Dunhill pipe for our wedding anniversary, Jan. 31.) Very nice, generous of her, but it opens wounds.
They would never completely heal, and I would remember Tess mostly for the good times, for sharing with me the ups and downs of so many wonderful years in Europe, India, and here at home in America, for bringing into the world two beautiful daughters and shepherding them through childhood and adolescence while I was necessarily away so much, for making homes whenever, wherever we settled down for a bit-in Vienna, in the village by the sea in Spain, in Paris and Berlin and Geneva and finally in New York and on the Connecticut farm. She was a beautiful woman, sensitive, intelligent, vivacious, full of-when she let go-Viennese charm and unlike any other woman I have ever known. And I remembered her talents. She was a fine linguist, at home in five languages. After studying at the Arts Students League in New York, she became a promising painter, later abandoning the brush to take up the study of ancient and modern Greek, which led her to the field of Greek archaeology, in which she made a name.
CHAPTER 2
Somehow, in the midst of the bitterness and the sorrow I managed to finish the book on the fall of France. It took me even longer to research and write than The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. It was a sad story to recount, just as it had been to witness.
Suddenly and swiftly, in the lovely first month of summer in 1940, the nation was conquered by the Germans. Accepting their defeat with astonishing alacrity, a surprisingly large number of French had turned to ape their barbaric Teutonic conqueror and turned against most of the things that had made their country great. A liberal democracy was scrapped and a mindless French version of Nazi totalitarianism set up. A great people had lost itself.
After the war, when the French began to find themselves, it was natural for them to want to forget the terrible defeat and what followed. It was a slice of their long history most were not proud of and did not want to be reminded of. Understandably, few French historians could bring themselves to try to write of what happened and why.
"You must give us time," Pierre Renouvin, the doyen of historians at the Sorbonne, had told me. "Time to let things heal." He himself had been placed by the government in charge of organizing and releasing documents pertinent to the defeat; but his efforts had been hamstrung by successive governments, parliaments, and the bureaucracy. As late as 1958, thirteen years after the end of the war, he was complaining that "the French archives…are still not accessible, even to privileged scholars." Privately he admitted that not many French scholars were pressing to see them. He encouraged me to go ahead. As an American, I would have fewer prejudices and, therefore, I could be more objective, he thought, than his French confrères.
It was not easy to go ahead. Whereas the victorious Allies had captured the archives of the Nazi German government nearly intact, along with the confidential and highly secret papers of the German High Command, the navy, the party, and soon made them available to scholars who wanted to write the history of Nazi Germany, the French government, insofar as its own records were concerned, had clamped on an infamous law-"la loi de cinquante ans"-which forbade making available to researchers confidential state papers until they were at least fifty years old. That made difficult any documented history of the decline and fall of the French Third Republic.
But even after fifty years the French government held back. I had a letter from the Ministry of the Armies saying that "unfortunately" the archives of the Historical Section of the Army were not available to scholars-"not even," it said, "to generals of the French army"-for any period later than 1900. That would include confidential military documents of both world wars.[68] The French Foreign Office responded to my queries by sending me a copy of an order releasing for the perusal of scholars certain dossiers up to 1815 (presumably about the Napoleonic wars and the Congress of Vienna), others up to 1848, still others up to 1896. It seemed to shy away from the twentieth century. Even when I appealed to André Chamson, director of the National Archives, in the belief that he, as a noted author and a member of the prestigious Academie Française, would be sympathetic to authors, I got nowhere. After a lengthy personal discussion he wrote me that he was "deeply grieved" about the situation. "But we have to stick firmly to the law of 50 years, especially in the matter of papers covering the last war and the occupation."
This was at first discouraging, especially to one who had worked for years with mountains of the most confidential documents of the Third Reich. But in time I found that I could get most of the French material I was looking for without ever having to break the law. For one thing, the former political leaders and the generals, particularly the latter, were making them available either in their memoirs or in their sworn testimony at the postwar trials of collaborators, especially those of Pétain and Laval, and during exhaustive questioning by the Parliamentary Investigating Committee, which after the war was charged by the National Assembly to look into the events from 1933 to 1945 which had brought the country to its knees. It became a rather common sight to see former cabinet members, politicians, diplomats, generals, and admirals appear on these occasions and, as they testified, pull out of bulging briefcases sheafs of secret documents that they had stashed away and that they were now using to defend themselves and clear their names.
Once a key French general, whose confidence I had gained after some initial difficulties by impressing him with the results of my initial research (i.e., that I had learned quite a bit about my subject), suddenly broke off a conversation we were having at his home, got up without a word, left the room, and returned lugging in three trunks of confidential material he had been guarding that covered an important part of the story I had not been able to document fully.
The publication in France of The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich undoubtedly helped me. It brought a certain respect from French academic historians that I had not received from their American counterparts. A surprisingly large number of them, including some of France's most illustrious historians, helped me in numerous ways, not only in my research but also in understanding the complex factors that brought about the debacle. Some of the politicians, too. Edouard Daladier and Paul Reynaud, the last two premiers of the Third Republic and, therefore, the two most important politicians of the last years before France's fall, went out of their way to help me. With them I put to practice an idea I had found valuable in my work as a journalist: that statesmen open up most to a reporter who can provide them information in return for what they are giving. It makes the relationship a two-way street.
Daladier was especially appreciative of certain revelations in my Third Reich book. He wrote in the press that I had revealed a great deal that would have moved him to act differently had he known it when he was in office.
Both former premiers complained to me that because of the "law of 50 years" they were being denied access to their own state papers, though Reynaud must have taken an awful lot of them with him when he left office, for they were largely the basis of his own memoirs. At numerous meetings at his home he showed me a number of them. Over the years of research in Paris, Reynaud turned out to be one of my chief sources of information. I realized that he, like every other politician, hoped that the material he gave me would bolster his own defense of what he had done. So I approached it with a certain skepticism and made due allowances. But it was not only historical material that he gave me: he opened doors to other politicians, military chiefs, historians, editors, diplomats. For some Americans, the French are often difficult to deal with. They gave me more help and cooperation than I had ever received in any other country, including my own.
This was all the more remarkable, because I was prying into an unpleasant subject for the French: their failures, mistakes, shortcomings, that had brought their country down. I had feared they might greet me coolly and suggest that I leave the recounting of France's fall to them; a foreigner had no business poking into it.[69] But none of the hundreds I talked to over a period of five years took this view.
I tried to spend either a whole morning or a whole afternoon-and sometimes both when I could-at a very special library I had stumbled on. This was the Bibliothèque de Documentation International Contemporaine, or BDIC, as it was known for short. It was a unique library and, as its name suggests, was devoted to documentation of contemporary history, especially that of World War II and the events that led up to it. Though it was then housed in a ramshackle old palace off the Etoile (it has since moved to the complex of the University of Paris at Nanterre just outside the city), which was too small to provide space for all its holdings, it had a warehouse on the outskirts of the capital and a brash motorcyclist raced to and fro all day long through the mad Parisian traffic to fetch you the documentation you needed. In some miraculous way the BDIC was also able to obtain for you material from the Bibliothèque Nationale and the library of the University of Paris in much less time than you could get it by going yourself to these venerable institutions. Anyone who has tried to work at the Bibliothèque Nationale, one of the great libraries of the world but one where haste is unknown (or was in the old days), will appreciate this shortcutting. There was an assistant director at BDIC who was a walking encyclopedia of knowledge about documenting contemporary history. And there were four very learned and attractive lady librarians, one of whom has remained a personal friend and adviser on modern French history to this day, twenty-five years later.
Without the collaboration of the BDIC, I doubt if I ever would have acquired the material I had to have to go ahead and write the France book. Without the permanent desk the library provided me in the cluttered office of the librarians, I doubt if I would have gotten it all down in the time I had.
***
Even before I began my research in Paris, I thought I might have a problem with the two rival key political figures I have mentioned, Edouard Daladier and Paul Reynaud. It was scarcely a secret among the correspondents and diplomats in Paris that both politicians had mistresses, who played important roles in the careers of their men, especially in the case of Reynaud. Ordinarily when I am writing history, a statesman's mistress may interest me, but she does not concern me unless she has had an influence on events-either through her man or on her own or both.
"History has a right to discuss her," wrote Pertinax (André Géraud), the forthright Parisian editor-columnist, in his book on the fall of France. He was referring to the mistress of Daladier, but he exercised that right to make even fuller comment on the mistress of Reynaud. What made the situation especially delicate for the country was that the two women had become deadly enemies. At one weekend gathering in the country the spring the war came, one official reported that the good ladies "had almost come to blows."
Reynaud did not mention his close friend in his voluminous memoirs nor in the conversations and correspondence I had with him after the war. Obviously he regarded the matter as his private and personal affair, which others had no right to pry into. Daladier, when I saw him, took the same attitude, and I respected it in both cases, and did not bring the matter up with either of them. Still, as I got further in my investigations, I found that the role of these two women-especially that of Reynaud's mistress-was such that it was no longer merely a personal matter. It was a small but important bit of history. Some French writers began to compare the position of the Comtesse de Portes, Reynaud's Egeria, with that of the Marquise de Maintenon in the reign of Louis XIV and even more with that of the Marquise de Pompadour in the time of Louis XV. The latter lady, it was remembered, virtually ruled France for twenty years (1745-1764). Madame de Portes never got that far-her time was too short-but many thought she tried. I decided that her story would have to find due notice in my narrative of the fall of France. And there would have to be at least mention of her great rival, who had the same exalted title, marquise, as that of the mistresses of the two French kings.
The background of the two women was strangely similar. Both came from wealthy bourgeois families, both married into the aristocracy, and with titles and money for a base proceeded to seek political power by liaisons with politicians who seemed most likely to reach the top.
The Marquise de Crussol was born Jeanne Beziers, daughter of a businessman at Nantes, who had made a fortune canning sardines. Seeking a suitable title, she had married the Marquis de Crussol, grandson of the redoubtable Duchesse d'Uzes. Seeking a more interesting life, she had moved on to Paris where she met Daladier some years after the death of his wife. He was then living alone in a modest apartment. They quickly warmed to each other and Madame de Crussol began to further his career in the more fashionable places in Paris. To Pertinax "she was a spirited woman, rather attractive…but grasping and covetous" and dominating. To the writer André Maurois, she was "a graceful and beautiful woman but with a taste for power and an unfortunate passion for economic and political doctrines"-about which apparently she knew very little. Still, both observers agreed, she was, unlike her enemy, content to keep herself in the background and exercise her power and influence discreetly.
Hélène de Portes was the daughter of a wealthy contractor and shipping magnate in Marseilles named Rebuffel. Bright, intelligent, full of energy and ambition, she married Comte Jean de Portes, son of the Marquis de Portes and the Duchesse de Gadagne, who soon became employed in one of her father's establishments in Marseilles. As Pierre Lazareff, the brilliant, youthful editor of Paris-Soir remarked, the two titled husbands "left their wives a good deal of freedom." Like the marquise, the comtesse set off to conquer Paris. There she was soon introduced to Reynaud, a middle-of-the-road conservative, who was on the political rise. At first there seems to have been merely a flirtation, and Hélène de Portes became a close friend of Reynaud's wife. But when his political fortunes began to prosper and he became an important cabinet member, Madame de Portes became his mistress. Bitter clashes, often public and embarrassing, began to ensue between the wife and mistress. Reynaud finally moved out of his home and took a bachelor apartment on the Place du Palais-Bourbon, where he lived to the end of his long life. There the comtesse had him to herself. I never could penetrate the mystery of her strong hold on this brilliant and strong-willed man. Those who had to deal with her were far from flattering.
To General Sir Edward L. Spears, who had occasion to see her at a critical moment of France's fall-and more often than he could stand-she was
of medium height, dark, [and] her curly hair brushed upwards looked untidy.…Her mouth was big and the voice that issued from it was unharmonious.…She seemed to the ordinary male observer to be devoid of charm.
Lazareff, who also saw her more often than he cared to, thought her "a little dumpy…with pretty eyes and pretty legs, always dressed badly and with an untidy hairdo." He saw in her slightly protruding teeth a mark of "one who loved power."
André Maurois, usually very gentle and gallant in his comments on women in the public eye, could scarcely hold back his thoughts of Hélène de Portes.
She was slightly mad, excitable, meddlesome and, as the course of events was to show, dangerous.…Her dominant characteristic seemed to be ambition. It was not enough for her that Reynaud was Minister of Finance; she was determined at all costs to make him Premier. She filled the salons of Paris with accounts of Daladier's lack of energy, and gave everyone to understand that Reynaud should succeed him.
Reynaud did become premier toward the end of March 1940, replacing Daladier, who retained the Ministry of Defense, a post he had held for four years, even while he was prime minister. This change, to be sure, was not due to Madame de Portes's intrigues, though they may have helped, but to the general feeling in the country and in Parliament that Daladier was not prosecuting the war energetically enough. The Phony War had gone on in the West for six months but there were signs that it was coming to an end and that at last the Western Allies, Britain and France, might clash militarily with the Germans-if not immediately in France, where there had been no fighting at all, then in Scandinavia.
There are numerous accounts of how Hélène de Portes, now that her lover was top man, tried to help him run a country torn with political dissension and defeatism and bracing for a German attack. At times she appeared to be trying to run the country on her own.
Maurois recalled calling on the new premier at his home.
He was depressed and nervous. On his desk were three telephones, one connected with the Ministry, the second with the outside, the third with the room of Madame de Portes. This last instrument rang unceasingly. Reynaud would lift the receiver, listen for a second and then cry out in an exasperated tone: "Yes…Yes, of course…But that's understood…But I implore you to let me do my work…" Finally he stopped answering.
On April 27, 1940, shortly after Hitler had conquered Norway and driven the hapless Franco-British contingents out of the country, Reynaud fell ill and his doctor ordered him to bed at his residence on the Place du Palais-Bourbon. There Pierre Lazareff tried to phone him in regard to a matter he considered important. Hélène de Portes answered the phone.
"We are horribly busy, my dear," she said, "but come over anyway."
When I arrived I found Hélène de Portes sitting behind Paul Reynaud's desk. Surrounded by generals, high officials, members of parliament, and functionaries, she was presiding over a council. She did most of the talking, speaking rapidly in a peremptory tone, advising and giving orders. From time to time she opened a door and I could hear her saying:
"How are you feeling, Paul? Keep resting. You need the rest. We are carrying on."
A couple of months later, after the German tanks had swept through France to the Channel in a few days and the French government had paused at the Loire on its flight from Paris to Bordeaux, General Spears, the British liaison officer with the French government, ran into Premier Reynaud's formidable mistress. The French armies were disintegrating and the defeatists in the government and army were demanding that Reynaud ask the Germans for an immediate armistice. At this crucial moment in France's history, Madame de Portes was siding with the defeatists and trying to get her lover to agree. Thus far he had been holding out for further resistance, first in Brittany and then in North Africa, to which he wanted to move the French government. Prime Minister Churchill had flown over to the Loire on June 11 to plead with the French government and army not to give in. The situation was admittedly desperate. Paris was about to fall. The venerable Marshal Pétain, hero of Verdun in the first war, and General Weygand, commander in chief of the retreating French armies, were insisting to Reynaud that he give up and ask the Germans for an armistice. Madame de Portes was backing them.
General Spears ran into her as he drove to the Château de Chissay to see the premier.
In the courtyard I saw to my utter astonishment Madame de Portes in a dressing gown over red pyjamas directing the traffic from the steps of the entrance. She was shouting to the drivers where to park.
The astounded British general parked his own car "so as to avoid the lady," he says, and went inside. Among other things he wanted to see a "Most Secret" telegram from London, which he had been told had been sent him but which he had not received. He questioned Roland de Margerie, Reynaud's chef de cabinet, who told him the message had been lost but that they were searching for it. Finally someone brought it in, all crumpled.
"Chut!" Margerie exclaimed. "It was in Madame de Portes's bed!"
The redoubtable lady kept popping in, says Spears, "this time in normal female garb, whispering mysteriously to one or another." Later at lunch the British ambassador told Spears "that as soon as any of us left the premier she dashed in asking what had been said and assailing him with reproaches. 'What did he say? What is the sense of going on?'"
"What an unattractive woman," Spears said he thought again. "She was certainly not pretty and quite as certainly untidy."
Even when Churchill flew back to the Loire a second time to try to shore up the faltering French, Madame de Portes kept trying to intervene to make the premier capitulate to the Germans. During an intense meeting of the two prime ministers, the good lady, according to a reporter of the Petit Parisien, kept flitting about between the conference hall and the courtyard, sending for Paul Baudoin, undersecretary of the Foreign Office, who sat in on the talks, and insisting that he keep Reynaud informed of her views.
"Tell Paul," she said, "that we must give up. We must make an end to it. There must be an armistice."
To Reynaud's credit, he opposed the armistice with the Germans to the last and was replaced by Marshal Pétain as premier, who promptly asked for it. But some thought Reynaud could have been stronger in the last crucial days in Bordeaux and that he might have arranged, as General de Gaulle, his military adviser, was urging, as were several members of his cabinet, for the French government to move to its colonies in North Africa, from where France could have made a prolonged stand. But his dogged mistress had worn him down.
The account of the two lady-friends of the two French leaders took up but three or four pages in a book of a thousand pages. The reasons why France fell so swiftly that June of 1940 were many and complex and went far back in French history. The Third Republic was probably doomed from the beginning because of its deep divisions at the very outset, which were never resolved-the majority of the members of the elected Assembly had preferred another monarchy. The role of the comtesse and the marquise had added a little spice to the last chapter of the story of a Republic that had had its moments of glory and achievement but also of appalling failures and a dismal, shabby ending. And it had touched on a theme that is as old as history itself: the influence of women, of wives and mistresses, on the course of events. The history of Nazi Germany had lacked that. The women in Adolf Hitler's life were of no consequence. His mistress was a cipher.
***
During the course of my research in Paris, I had one shocking moment of disillusionment. It came during a talk with Raymond Aron at his home on the Quai de Passy on July 7, 1961. Aron was an important figure in France's postwar intellectual, political, and journalistic life, a man of immense prestige in conservative circles in France and very dear to American academics and political commentators, even those of the liberal persuasion. He had had a distinguished academic career in Paris and when I saw him, he was devoting much of his time and mind to a regular front-page column he wrote for Le Figaro, the leading conservative daily newspaper in the capital. His many admirers in France and elsewhere, particularly in America, regarded him as a great philosopher-sage. Though I admired Aron and read him regularly when I was in France, I did not share in this immense admiration. He seemed to me too narrow in his conservatism, in his view of politics, economics, and the general situation in the world. But he was someone, I thought, whom it would benefit me to see. I was looking for all viewpoints.
During our talk he advanced what I noted in my diary as an "interesting (surprising) thesis." But by the time I wrote up the notes of our conversation and mulled over them, I began to be appalled by what he said. It still troubles me when I think of it twenty-seven years later. I had not expected such a view from him.
His idea was that in the long run France gained from its quick and early defeat and surrender to the Germans in June 1940, and he was now glad of it. He argued that if France had been able to stop Hitler's armies and continue the war, as in 1914-1918, she again would have lost the cream of her youth-some one million and a half men-as in the First World War. It was her small losses in men and material and wealth in 1940 that enabled her to come back so quickly and well after 1945.
Neither Aron nor other French [I wrote in my diary] seem to realize that it was the Allied armies which saved France, that it was those nations that did fight-Britain, Russia, the U.S.A.-that made the recovery of France possible.
It is better to be rescued by others than not to be rescued at all. But it is better for a nation if it can save itself. One can understand, and sympathize with, the French rejoicing that the lives of their youth had been spared in the Second World War after such horrible losses in the First. France and, to a certain extent, Great Britain never recovered from the staggering loss of life and property in the First World War. But what if Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union had not liberated France? The country would have remained under the savage heel of the Nazi Germans, who probably would have destroyed it as a nation, as Hitler planned to destroy Poland and Russia. What good would it have done to save the lives of a million and a half young men if, with the rest of the French, they would become permanent slaves of the Nazi Germans?
Philosopher and great sage though Aron was regarded by many in France and abroad to be, he and those French who thought like him had really not faced that question. Nor, I gathered, did they want to. I put it to Aron as politely as I could, but he did not answer.
CHAPTER 3
Lenox, February 3, 1969…At 1:15 P.M. today I finished the French book, writing "The End" on page 1618. Eight years of labor over. I feel exultant but also sad. It has been such a major part of my life all these years, that it will be strange to have to live without it. And my last big book, probably. With it and the German book, I've lived for 15 years. And though my personal life was unhappy-until a year ago when I left home-my working life has been exciting, each day.
Later. Forgot brief epilogue-on what happened to the chief characters.…Some of them executed, almost all imprisoned. So by midnight, when I finished, manuscript had come to 1620 pages!
***
Lenox, August 7…The France book now scheduled to come out November 13. A Book-of-the-Month Club selection for January. Look to do an extract next month. I wonder how it, which represents eight years of hard labor, will be received. One never knows.
The reception by the New York Times was an example. It was surprising. The distinguished newspaper clobbered the book-not once but twice, in its daily review of books and in its Sunday Book Review. For good measure its news department, which had asked me to talk with a Times reporter and pose for pictures by a Times photographer for a story it said it had to have by publication date, November 13, did not print it until December 29, six weeks later, when the appearance of the book was no longer news. The reporter's piece itself was harmless enough, but the photographer turned out to be a problem. He had greeted me on arriving at my home in Lenox by saying that the last time we met I had shoved him off the stage onto the floor of Carnegie Hall in New York while he was trying to photograph me-an unlikely story, since I could not recall ever having been on the stage of Carnegie Hall and I had never pushed anyone off a stage anywhere, especially a man bigger than I, as this cameraman was. The photograph of his which the Times used was far from flattering, to say the least.
One paragraph in the story must have struck some readers as a bit strange. On December 29 that year, when it appeared, the entire East was being buried under one of the worst blizzards in years. Blowing, drifting snow had tied up the region. Yet the paragraph began: "On a recent cold and rainy day Mr. Shirer sat in the library of the white frame house in which he lives…." As I read the piece, the snow was coming down so hard I could not see across the street. It had been a "cold and rainy" autumn day six weeks before when the Times men arrived. But winter had set in early that December, as it usually does in our Berkshire Hills, blanketing us with snow.
Was it a conspiracy at the Times to try to destroy this book, as my publishers and some friends thought? Or was it just a coincidence? I wondered. Scotty Reston, the Times bureau chief and columnist in Washington, and an old friend, wrote me he was sure "there was no conspiracy at the Times to be beastly to Shirer." He himself, he said, had been "surprised by the two reviews and personally hurt by them."
I cannot say I was personally hurt myself. But I was certainly resentful that the two reviewers in so good a newspaper would deliberately distort and misrepresent to their readers what I had written, and one of them with surprising vulgarity. Surprising for the Times, at any rate.
This last was a staff reviewer for the Times daily book column by the name of Lehmann-Haupt. I was surprised he had been given the book to review, because in previous pieces he had shown, I thought, a singular lack of understanding of history.
After noting that I was "a popular historian" and that "Lord knows there's nothing wrong with that" he gave his readers, despite his obvious ignorance of the subject, a little lecture on "written history," which he asserted was "a distortion of reality." But "Mr. Shirer," he complained, "does not buy that. He is bent on reproducing history in its pristine state."
This irked him. For one thing, he wrote, he did not think that the fall of France and the collapse of the Third Republic in 1940 was important enough to warrant so long and detailed a book as I wrote. After all, he said, France had been defeated by Germany before, in 1870. Why all the fuss about its defeat in 1940 by the same Germans?
Well, I thought, with such an ignorance of history-and history recent enough for him perhaps to make an effort to understand-what could you expect but such drivel? Obviously he had not comprehended the lines I had quoted in the book from an eminent French historian, who shortly after writing them had been executed by the Nazi Germans. This was Marc Bloch, who wrote that France's fall that June "was the most terrible collapse in all the long history of our national life." To the French Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain it was an "unprecedented humiliation of a great nation." For me personally, as I noted in my diary in Paris on June 17, 1940, my feeling was "that what we are witnessing here is the complete breakdown of French society-a collapse of the army, of government, of the morale of the people. It is almost too tremendous to believe."
It could not be compared to the surrender to the Prussians in 1870 as the reviewer thought. As I read on, I could discern that he seemed miffed that I was what he called "a best-selling author" and that my new book, like the previous one, was a Book-of-the-Month Club selection. He saved his punchline for the last. After informing his readers that there were a few parts in the book worth reading, he gave them this parting advice: "Tear out the rest of the pages and use them to line the gerbil's cage, or something." In other words, as toilet paper for your pet rat.
It was the first time I had seen this reviewer resort to vulgarity-and the Times print it-though it may have popped up in pieces I had skipped, of which there were many.
The editor of the Sunday Times Book Review had given my book for review to an unknown teacher of history at Columbia. The editor, or his predecessor, had given my Rise and Fall of the Third Reich nine years before to an eminent Oxford historian in the belief, my publishers suspected, that such a British authority would give a history by an upstart American journalist the drubbing it probably deserved. Instead, H. R. Trevor-Roper, later the Regis Professor of Modern History at Oxford, had praised the book to the skies on the front page, finding it to be a "monumental work…a splendid work of scholarship, objective in judgment, inescapable in its conclusions." My publishers believed, I'm sure wrongly, that the Times Book Review editor never forgave Trevor-Roper for crossing him up. At any rate, some of the editors at Simon and Schuster thought the Review was not going to take any chances this time with a noted historian. So it chose an obscure young instructor at nearby Columbia.
The man was as condescending as most American academics were to my works. But he turned out to be more adept than most in his deliberate distortions and falsifications of what I had written. He began by dismissing my book on the Third Reich, which he said "reached millions who, against the advice of scholars, found in its very bulk a reassurance of the final word."
Against the advice of what scholars? Peter Schwed, an editor at Simon and Schuster, posed the question in a brief note to the Times Book Review editor. Schwed pointed out that the Book Review itself had front-paged the laudatory appraisal of the book by Trevor-Roper. For good measure, he added a comment by another scholar, Frederick L. Schuman of Williams College, who called the Third Reich book "the definitive work on Nazi Germany: massive, monumental, meticulously documented."
Like the Times daily reviewer, the young Columbia teacher seemed resentful that some of my previous books, Berlin Diary and The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, had been "best-sellers" and were selections of the Book-of-the-Month Club. "Now 'The Collapse of the Third Republic,'" he added as if it irked him, "is also a Book-of-the-Month selection." Apparently to this young university instructor, as to many of his academic brethren, if a book was selected by the Book-of-the-Month Club and sold well, it had to be bad. He could scarcely get off the subject. He snidely suggested that in my case there was "the commercial calculation by which a best-seller [my book on Nazi Germany] has its pre-sold sequel [my France book]." If he were a wiser young man, he might have known that invariably an author who tries consciously to write a best-seller ends up with a book that no one will buy or read. At any rate there was never any such "commercial calculation" on my part. No one had believed the Third Reich book would sell at all. And as a matter of fact, the France book never sold enough to pay back the advance.
The Columbia instructor was resentful at something else. He did not like a comment I made in my "Acknowledgments" about the difference in the attitude between European and American professors toward nonacademics like myself who tried to write history. I had expressed my appreciation to some dozen distinguished French university historians for the help and guidance they had given me, and I had named them, adding that none of them shared the "disdain their American academic colleagues have for former journalists breaking into their sacred field-that stupidity is unknown in Europe, where teaching history is not considered the only qualification for writing it." The young instructor thought such a comment "unnecessary."
He complained that one of the grave faults of the book was that I did not have a "major theme." As if the terrible collapse of the Third Republic or the rise and fall of the Third Reich were not great themes, as if, to go to a higher league beyond me, the decline and fall of the Roman Empire by Gibbon and the story of the decline of Athens as the result of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides were not "major themes."
Not all professors missed the theme of the book. An unsolicited letter from Eric F. Goldman, professor of history at Princeton, noted: "This is certainly history in the grand tradition-a theme of sweeping significance illuminated by tremendous research and a skeptical but always warmly humane intelligence."
There was a beauty at the end of the young Columbia instructor's long piece. Despite all the solid documentation, which had taken years in France to gather and which I had checked with many of France's most illustrious historians, this reviewer told his readers that in the main my book "on closer inspection" turned out to derive "from 1940 potboilers."
I dwell on these two Times reviews for two reasons. First: my book on the fall of France was surely marked by flaws as most long, narrative histories are. Any reviewer worth his salt would have had to point them out if he were knowledgeable enough to detect them. A writer does not gripe about such reviews. What is harder for him to take are reviews which deliberately-as in these two cases-decline to give the reader the faintest idea of a book, its scope, its sweep, its story, its scholarship, its documentation, its judgments and conclusions, however controversial-but instead give a false and distorted picture. And he does not much enjoy being the victim of petty prejudices and jealousies even when they come from academics. To write that the France book-any part of it-was based on "1940 potboilers" was not only cheap and petty but also a deliberate deception.
Second: an American writer was concerned about the fairness and adequacy of reviews in the Times, especially in the Sunday Book Review, because the newspaper, by 1969, had a near-monopoly in the greater New York area insofar as reviewing books was concerned. The only competition in the city came from a morning and an afternoon tabloid that did not bother about such things as books. And the greater New York area was the place where more books were published, sold, and read than in any other section of the country.
The Times with its monopoly could kill a play in New York-and often did-with its one review. It could not kill a book, but it could damage one, especially if there was a one-two punch from the daily and then the Sunday editions.
This had not been true until the lamentable demise of the New York Herald-Tribune three years before. The Tribune's daily book column, pioneered by Lewis Gannett, was excellent as was the Tribune's Sunday Books, edited by Irita Van Doren, a worthy rival to the Times Sunday review. In both cases the Tribune provided a fair balance to the reviews in the Times. Now that balance was gone.
***
The serious reviews of the book from coast to coast displayed a healthy variety of opinion. Time was condescending as it had been with my Third Reich book. In both cases Time concluded that I was not qualified to write on such important subjects. Its sister, Life, came to just the opposite conclusion. Its reviewer hailed the book as the "most illuminating one ever written" on the fall of France. "The essential merit of his book is that it explains the fall of France in 1940 not only as a military defeat but as the collapse of a political system and a society."
Though finding a good deal to criticize in the book-its style was not "particularly distinguished," its treatment of the history of the nineteenth century was "sketchy, without much original interpretation and with some rather facile generalizations"-the reviewer in The Atlantic ended up by finding that the France book in the "sense of compassionate involvement, of genuine tragedy" was "a more moving book than its great predecessor, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich."
Shirer succeeds magnificently in the main task he sets himself.…He is fair, scholarly and superbly dramatic. Few readers at the end of these thousand pages will not feel a new understanding of the French people and their past ordeals.
On the other hand, a reviewer in the Washington Post thought I skipped too briefly over the relevant facts about the cost to the French of their victory in 1918, whereupon he purported to reveal those facts himself-all of them, I thought, taken from the lengthy section I had devoted to the subject. A reviewer in the Wall Street Journal faulted me, as had the man in the Sunday Times Book Review, for spending more time scandalizing over the mistresses of Daladier and Reynaud than I did "analyzing the atmosphere and psychology of deceit and defeat that felled in 20 years" the Third Republic. One wonders about their arithmetic. There were some 810 pages devoted to the latter; three or four pages, in all, to the former.
Some journalist-reviewers touched on the question of whether journalists should leave the writing of history exclusively to the academics. They seemed unanimous that they should not. A few even went farther and thought that some journalists had turned out to be historians. Thus a reviewer in the Kansas City Star commented:
"The Collapse of the Third Republic" is a popular history but it is written by a journalist who became a professional historian.
A promotion for me!
Though he insisted on dividing journalists and historians, a professor of history at Towson State College in the Baltimore Sun sort of promoted me also.
William L. Shirer both profits and suffers from the rich experiences of his life as a veteran reporter and a recently ordained historian.
He is not quite able to reconcile the conflicts inherent in these two roles. To his credit, it must be said that he succeeds as well as any man could….
In fact, he went on to say that I "succeeded amazingly well in describing the human beings torn by conflicting motives rather than leaden dummies stereotyped as heroes or villains." Finally,
Someday, when the definitive history of the War of 1939 is written, Mr. Shirer's work will be an important primary source in itself. Until then, it will provide adequate subject for debate and many hours of profitable and satisfying reading.
From Princeton, Professor Eric F. Goldman tried to cheer me up. He had written first:
Last night I finished reading your book on the collapse of France and I want to write you. I was fascinated by the book and I was moved by it….
Then followed his specific comment, which I have quoted. When I write to him later asking why most of his colleagues attacked me, he responded:
So far as the academics are concerned, as you know, a lot of them have always gone after anybody who writes well. Their dismal canon is that if history is to be significant, it must be dull. I'm afraid the trend is increasing….
He thought the trend was also increasing among critics who dismissed any book that was "too successful."
I believe you are entirely right to dismiss these smears, even if it would be more than human not to be annoyed by them. The great distinction of your historical works speaks for itself, and has not only been widely recognized but will be-I am sure-recognized more and more as times go by. They stand as monuments of superb history, immune to pettiness.
The British reviewers, as usual, were condescending. They seemed annoyed that an American, and a journalist to boot, should try to write of Europe and of their tight little isle. The British did it better.
Most of them echoed A. J. P. Taylor, the eminent Oxford historian and author, among other works, of the silliest book ever written about the origins of the Second World War (he practically exonerated Hitler of any responsibility for it), in the London Observer. He claimed there was nothing new in the book. A well-read Englishman knew it all already. Taylor also found my "command of English not impeccable" and as an example cited a quotation I had used from a Belgian statesman, as if I were responsible for the Belgian's language.
Only one British reviewer liked the book. This was William McElwee in the London Sunday Telegraph. He and Taylor did not seem to have read the same book. Noting that in my subtitle I had called the book "an inquiry," McElwee thought "The Collapse of the Third Republic is more likely to remain for many years as an authoritative answer."
Considering the rigidity with which the French archivists interpret their fifty-year rule, it is staggeringly well documented; and I suspect that when all is revealed in 1990, few of these conclusions will be seriously challenged.
Shirer the journalist does indeed intrude, but only to add vivid detail to authenticated events. In no sense is this reportage or "contemporary" history. It is a highly professional piece of research; and it holds the reader's interest for every one of its 921 pages.
Taylor had derided an early section of the book giving a brief résumé of the history of the Third Republic as a "scamper over French history." To McElwee that same section was "itself a minor historical masterpiece."
***
I wondered what the reaction in France would be when the French translation came out in the late fall of 1970. As I've indicated, the subject was very painful for the French. No people, no nation, likes to be reminded of such a crushing defeat, such a breakdown of their whole society in such a shabby end as the one in Vichy. And there was always that touch of chauvinism in the French (as in most peoples, including the American and British). I suspected a lot of reviewers would ask why a foreigner would poke his nose into their sorrows. Or if not that, that they would conclude that no foreigner, and especially one from distant America across the ocean and a journalist to boot, could possibly understand French history. In both cases they would dismiss the book as the Times had done so cavalierly in New York.
But this did not happen. The reviews found plenty to criticize. Some of my views and interpretations were attacked, my shortcomings pointed out. But the book as a work of history was taken seriously and seriously reviewed. The French, however much they disagreed with it, concluded that it was an important work, a considerable contribution to their history and more objective, despite my prejudices, than it was yet possible for a French historian to be.
None of the French reviewers, some of whom were university professors, seemed to care a whit whether I was an academic or a journalist-historian. They judged the book on its contents. Some from the universities even conceded that my having been a journalist eyewitness to the last years of the Third Republic added color and authoritativeness to the chronicle.
The most telling attack on the book came from Professor René Rémond, director of studies and research at the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques in Paris. This was a prestigious academic post and the review appeared in what was then (and perhaps still is) France's most prestigious daily newspaper, Le Monde of Paris, a sort of French equivalent to the New York Times and the Times of London, which gave it half a page. I was grateful that the leading newspaper in Paris would devote so much space to the book. I was somewhat surprised by the review itself. Professor Rémond had been most helpful to me, not only in my research and in putting me in touch with some of the country's best historians, but also in discussing the history of France's fall. We had hours of talks about it. We argued many points but on the whole, I thought, we had pretty much the same approach to the story-he perhaps a little more conservative than I. I knew he was a leading layman of the Catholic Church. But he seemed to be a moderate, and I knew he was an authority about the right wing in the country-he had written a fine book about it: La Droite en France.
In his review, I must say, he seemed like a man who had drastically changed. Though he found some good things to say, he was severely critical of a great deal-he thought I had "half-failed" in what I set out to do. Though I thought some of his criticism was certainly deserved, I found I did not mind those parts which I thought unreasonable and distortions of what I had written. (He was critical even of conceptions I had received from him.) This probably was because, after all, his taking a whole half-page in Le Monde to air his reaction to the book-and the newspaper giving him that much space-was proof, I thought, of the importance he and the newspaper gave the book. The piece in Le Monde stirred up a great deal of controversy and provoked many, many letters to the newspaper. This was all to the good.
Most of the rest of the reviews in France were more understanding. Lord knows they found plenty to criticize. But on the whole they thought well of the book. A few examples:
Temoinage Chrétien: "Shirer has constructed a monument. He has known how to mix his personal memories with the work of research. Every new work will henceforth have to refer to this." Jean-Pierre Rioux in three pages in the Magazin Littéraire questioned some of my interpretations and emphasis in regard to the strengths and weaknesses of the Third Republic, but added "that few authors before him have brought forth so much labor" in "a spectacular and vibrant book." For "Akademois" in the Paris Journal the work "is more than a large work, it's a great book." The review of the early history of the Third Republic, which I had written for American readers as background, so that they could understand the last chapters, and which might well have been left out of the French edition, found an enthusiast in this reviewer. He thought it "a vast and interesting prologue." As for the whole work, it was for him "magistral, impartial, with an extraordinary power of evocation" and finally: "The book reestablishes the responsibilities…and makes the truth triumph."
So in France, I got brickbats and flowers, favorable and unfavorable comments, criticism that I deserved and some that I didn't. But the important thing for me was that the French took the book, painful as it must have been to read, seriously, and they wrote seriously about it.
***
Some of the war veterans groups in France did go after me. I had rather expected it, since the book, I thought, exploded a number of myths that were dear to them in explaining the debacle, such as that the French were inferior in tanks to the Germans and vastly inferior in the air. I had shown that the French had more and better tanks and that even in the air, if you took the planes of the R.A.F. stationed in France into account, they had enough aircraft to give the Germans a good deal of trouble. And I mentioned that, strangely enough, the French had more planes at the end of the Battle of France than at its outset. This had puzzled General Gamelin, the commander in chief.
But my analysis of tank and plane strength did not convince the French veterans. They wrote in protest to the press, especially to Le Monde. And they published a manifesto attacking the book. I must say they were civilized about it. At the end of the declaration they wrote: "We invite W. Shirer to come and discuss this with us."
Other veterans rose to my defense. Colonel Adolphe Goutard, for instance, a noted military historian, wrote a lengthy reply to veterans. After that the ruckus died down. But I felt good that a mere book could arouse such interest.
***
Late that fall of 1970, after the book came out in Paris, I had a novel experience. My French publisher sent me off on a six-week tour of the country to promote the book-something it had not done with the Third Reich book, something that French publishers, more staid than those in the United States, rarely did. It turned out for me to be a wonderful and hilarious trip.
At Bordeaux, I was given something I had never received at home. The mayor gave me a gala luncheon to launch the book. No American mayor had ever done that or, to the best of my knowledge, ever heard of a book of mine. But before I got too puffed up, the mayor of Bordeaux took me down a notch or two. In a gracious speech he said that one thing bothered him about me. I had given a local interview praising red Bordeaux but condemning the white vintages as too sweet. There were no dry Bordeaux white wines, as in Burgundy. On the contrary, the mayor said, gently rebuking me before the local TV cameras. He had brought along to the lunch three bottles of dry Bordeaux white, and he invited me to taste them. I did. They were very dry. And wonderful. And I publicly apologized.
All went smoothly in the next stops, Marseilles, Toulouse, and Nice. I would arrive, as at Bordeaux, be interviewed by the press, then go to the regional radio-TV headquarters for interviews there. After lunch there would be autographing parties in two or three local bookstores-a rather new happening, I gathered, in France. I was sure many French came to see what an American writer looked like and how well he spoke their language. Some came to show off their English.
It was not until I got to Grenoble, a gem of an old city nestled in the Savoy Alps, that the fun really began. There I was to be interviewed on TV by the head of the regional station, a former literary journalist in Paris with whom I had a slight acquaintance. He had written to say he wanted to do the show himself. But when I arrived, I found he had been abruptly dismissed, apparently by General de Gaulle, the president of the Republic, and had returned to Paris. At the TV station I was ushered into a studio where I remained alone as the minutes ticked off to air-time. Some thirty seconds before we were to begin, a young man arrived, seated himself at the table, glanced at me, and said: "Excuse me, monsieur, but who are you?"
"I'm the author of this book," I said, pointing to a copy I had lugged into the studio with me. I looked up to the clock. About twelve seconds to go.
"What book is that? I have not heard of it," he said. "Someone sent me in to talk to someone about something," he added, "but that's all I know. What is your name, by the way?" I started to answer: "By the way, I'm-" when I noticed the engineer in the control room waving frantically at us. And the red light went on in the camera facing me. The young man finally realized we were on the air.
"Ladies and gentlemen," he said breezily, "we have with us today…" He paused. "Uh…we have with us today…uh…" I thrust the book under his nose. "Ah, yes, we have with us today…" He stopped to read the lettering on the book cover. "Uh…the celebrated American writer…" He looked down again at the jacket. "Uh…William L. Shirer…" He had trouble, as the French do, with the w, which is rarely used in French and then only for foreign words and names, and he did not find my last name easy-it came out something like "Sheer-ere."
"…who is the author of…" He had to stop again to look down at the book. "…the author of…uh…La Chute de la Troisième Republique."
There was a dead silence. The young man for the first time appeared flustered. What to say when you had not read the book or even, two minutes ago, ever heard of it and the author? I thought it was time for me to take over. A few seconds of silence on the air can seem an eternity.
"I'd like to talk to you a little about this book," I said.
"Yes. Please do," the man said, immensely relieved. "I'm sure our audience would be interested in what you say." The fool might have mentioned the subject of the book, I thought, and added that it was one of particular interest to the French, since it was about their recent history. But how could he? He hadn't the faintest idea. The title, on the jacket, apparently did not connote anything to him. That must have been something that had happened before he came along.
I launched into a lecture in the best French I could command. It had a strong American accent, I knew. A Frenchwoman who had interviewed me in Paris had said she liked the way I spoke her language. It was "très drôle." The broadcast at Grenoble, too.
At Nancy in the north of France where I autographed copies of my work in the biggest bookstore I had ever seen-a seven-story building full of books-there was some kind of snafu between the promotion people and the publisher. So when I arrived at the bookstore after lunch, the mayor of the city, who was also a deputy in the National Assembly, politely but pointedly expressed his regret that I had not appeared at the luncheon he had given for me, to which, he said, he had invited a number of French historians from the northern universities as well as some political luminaries. It was an embarrassing moment. The publicity woman and my publishers had neglected to mention the luncheon to me.
Driving east that afternoon for a TV show at Strasbourg on the Rhine, it began to fog up and we had to crawl along the last couple of hours, which made us late. We were greeted at the door of the studios by a bouncy young man, who said he would be interviewing me. I suggested that since we were late, we go immediately to a studio and begin.
"I have arranged something better," he said with great enthusiasm. "You see, I aspire to get a job in American television. I see tapes of many of your shows. I love American TV. It's so innovative. So imaginative. So let us do this interview the American way. We'll do it strolling through the park. It is just a few meters from here." He pointed toward a space lost in the fog.
"You can photograph in such a dense fog?" I said.
"Oui. We have special cameras. Equipped with infrared rays, or something. They can see through the fog."
"I think it would be better to do it in a studio," I said. No TV camera, I was sure, could penetrate that thick fog. But he would not have it. He wanted very much to do it the "American way." He would make a copy for the résumé he was sending to America for a job.
So we hurried down to an adjacent park. The fog was even thicker than on the road. You couldn't see more than eight or nine feet ahead of you.
"We'll walk along the delightful paths of the park," the young man said. "And talk. Informally, you know, about your book. Like they do in the 'States.'"
We began, a man with a mike at the end of a long pole and a second man lugging what looked like a very heavy TV camera back-pedaling a few feet in front of us as we strolled and talked.
We did not stroll and talk very long. Suddenly out of the fog loomed two figures who looked like the derelicts you see sleeping along the quais and under the bridges of the Seine in Paris.
"Bonjour!" they said, happily. "What's going on here?"
"Don't disturb us, please," the young interviewer said. "Can't you see? We're filming a talk here with this American writer."
"Ah! You're an American writer?" one of the men broke in. "All Americans are rich, n'est-ce pas? Donnez-nous cent francs."
"I haven't got a hundred francs on me," I told them.
"Please! You are disturbing the interview!" the young man kept saying.
"Please!" both tramps persisted. "Give us one hundred francs! You're an American, he says. All Americans rich, très riche, n'est-ce pas? A hundred francs, please!"
Finally between the interviewer, the two technicians, and myself, we scraped up fifty or sixty francs. The vagabonds thanked us and disappeared into the fog.
The cameraman had continued to roll his camera during most of the incident, and the sound man had picked it up.
"Wonderful!" said the pro-American interviewer. "We'll put it all in. Like they would in America. It will enhance the interview, n'est-ce pas?"
That evening the director of the regional radio-TV network gave a fine dinner for us at a local hotel on the Rhine. Later we were to watch the late evening news broadcast, which the director said would feature our interview. But about 10:00 P.M. the chief engineer called the director, who left the table to take the call in another room. He looked a trifle baffled when he returned.
"We need not hurry," he said. "I am sorry, Mr. Shirer. But your broadcast didn't come off. The audio part was fine. But there was no picture. Just fog. Thick, gray fog."
***
Shortly before noon on November 9, I arrived at the TV center in Lyon for another interview about the book. The place was in great commotion. Perhaps, I thought, some big story had just broken. Someone ushered me to a studio. I could see men and women rushing in and out of the control room. Finally one of them burst into the studio.
"Your broadcast is canceled," he said. "All regular programs are canceled. General de Gaulle has just died."
I felt the same shock as he did, as everyone at the broadcasting house seemed to feel. As almost everyone in France and soon many in the whole wide world felt. I had spoken up for de Gaulle in my broadcasts after he flew from Bordeaux to London in June 1940, to denounce the surrender of the French to the Germans. Like his friend Paul Reynaud, he had been for continuing resistance from the French colonies in North Africa. He broadcast to his fellow countrymen from London that the war was not over. It would go on, and Hitler in the end would lose.
The pro-Nazi French government under Pétain and Pierre Laval at Vichy declared him a traitor. During the next couple of years of the war, Churchill in London encouraged him in his efforts to build up the "Free French" as a fighting force but found him, with his imperious manners and his stubbornness, difficult to deal with. President Roosevelt didn't even try, and remained hostile to him to the end of the war-a stupid mistake, I always thought.
The Allies brought him back to Paris after the successful landings in France in the summer of 1944 and he became head of the provisional government, was elected president the next year, and resigned in 1946 because his support on the left crumbled. He was called out of retirement twelve years later, in 1958, when it seemed France might fall apart over its failures in North Africa. He quickly restored confidence, drafted a new constitution that he hoped would dampen the bitter party strife that had been the bane of French politics for nearly a century, and he was elected president of the Fifth Republic. In the new Republic the president was given much more power and the elected Assembly less.
Personally de Gaulle was rather authoritarian but he did not aspire, as many charged, to dictatorship. He thought a strong democracy could stand a strong president-that, in fact, it needed one.
A few days later, back in Paris, I watched on television the state funeral for the general at Notre Dame. While I was watching, a messenger arrived at my room from my French publisher, Stock. He handed me a letter that had come in that morning to the director of Stock from General de Gaulle.
"This must be one of the very last letters General de Gaulle wrote," a note from the director said. "And it concerns you."
It was dated November 3, 1970, on his personal stationery with "Le General de Gaulle" printed at the top of the page.
Monsieur:
You gave me a great pleasure in sending me the work of William L. Shirer "La Chute de la Troisième Republique" at the moment it came off the press.
I thank you for having given me to read this very remarkable book and interesting inquiry into the causes of defeat of 1940.
De Gaulle had already read the book in the original English language version-or had had it read to him. One year before, when the book came out in New York, I had sent him a copy and he had written me on November 13, 1969:
Monsieur:
I thank you very sincerely for having had the happy thought of sending me your book "The Collapse of the Third Republic."
I have read it with great interest and I appreciated the objectivity which you have shown.
CHAPTER 4
That six weeks of barnstorming for the book in France as 1970 came to an end was, with one exception, the last assignment I would have in Europe, to which I had first come as a budding journalist nearly half a century before-forty-five years, to be exact. I was twenty-one then; now I was sixty-six. It was time to begin to slow down. If I didn't, the process of aging would soon do it for me.
I had had my say about Europe in the two long books about the rise and fall of the Third Reich and on the collapse of the Third Republic. Previously, as a newspaperman and a broadcaster, I had written and spoken a million words about it in my dispatches and broadcasts. I still felt at home on the old Continent, especially in Paris. This last fling there and in the rest of France had been a lark. But I had no yearning to return for good. Over the quarter of a century since I came home at the end of the war, Europe had faded away as the center of my existence.
I had a feeling as I returned from France that year, in time for a snowy New England Christmas, that I would be spending almost all of the rest of my life-which could not be long-in my village in the Berkshires of western Massachusetts, writing (but no more massively documented thousand-page books!), reading (there would never be time to read all the books I wanted to, even those in my own small library), having a try at learning Russian, listening to classical music at nearby Tanglewood, where the Boston Symphony Orchestra played eight weeks in summer, doing a little skiing and sailing, cultivating my garden (if I could triumph over the woodchucks), chewing the fat with old friends-now dwindling in numbers-and with new, younger friends…if they could stand an old fogy, seeing my two daughters and watching their children grow.
By now I preferred life in the country. I loved the green hills and valleys of the Berkshires, the streams and the forests, the lakes and the fields, the mountain air, the moody skies and the changing seasons. I needed more space than I could get in a city-space to have a garden to putter in, a lake on which to sail, woods to tramp through, slopes to ski. After so long in the great, dynamic cities of Europe and in Chicago and New York, I liked the slower pace of the countryside. Not that I wanted to lose contact entirely with the city. One reason I settled in Lenox, Massachusetts, was that New York and Boston were but 150 miles away. Every once in a while I could steal away to them to get a recharge of their electricity and get fired up by their stimulation.
Over the years I drifted slowly and, for the most part, happily, actively and in relative good health, into old age. I did not retire. A writer rarely retires. But I began to ease up a bit, trying to face up to the fact that at seventy and then eighty, one could no longer pursue fully the strenuous life of youth and middle age. It was not easy at first to face. The illusion that old age would never creep up on me stubbornly persisted. I forgot the advice George Bernard Shaw once gave to a friend: "Don't try to live forever. You will never succeed."
It was a rather interesting time in which to come to the end of a long life. Interesting because much that was new and daring and exciting was happening, but depressing too and discouraging, because the appalling follies of men, their selfishness, their greed, their lust for power and their downright sadism was making life so wretched for so many.
The 1960s raced by and because I was absorbed in writing the book on France, they somewhat passed me by. I followed events as reported in the newspapers and over the air and reacted to them. But my diaries for that decade dealt mostly with the problems of the book and with the ups and downs of my personal life.
I cannot say that I had a very clear idea of the 1960s as they came to an end though I felt, like everyone else, I suppose, that they had been tumultuous and violent.
Later, looking back, some observers would take a dim view of the decade. Richard Rovere, the correspondent of The New Yorker in Washington, thought the 1960s had "been perfectly awful." They made up for him "a slum of a Decade." Benjamin de Mott, the astute literary critic and teacher from Amherst, believed the 1960s had produced "a cultural revolution" and that life in America could never be the same again. Richard Hofstader, the historian, took an opposite view. "If I get around to writing a general history of the recent past, I'm going to call the chapter on the sixties 'The Age of Rubbish.'"
But this disregarded the fact that the 1960s was a time of revolt: of the youth, particularly the college students, of blacks, of women. The students tore up the campuses at Columbia, Berkeley, Cornell, even Harvard. The blacks called for "Black Power." At Cornell they brandished arms as they took over some of the buildings. "Women's Liberation" was born and grew.
And the civil rights movement, spurred on by the courageous, imaginative leadership of Martin Luther King, began to break down the barriers that had kept the blacks from having their constitutional freedoms. The nation could no longer ignore it, especially after the spectacular march on Washington in the sweltering August days of 1963 when two hundred thousand blacks and several thousand whites gathered in the capital to demand the end of racial inequality. Because the nation watched it on television, the conscience of the country was aroused. And millions of listeners, after following a series of rather florid but unaffective speeches from the platform in front of the Lincoln Memorial, were galvanized, as were those in the vast throng, by the electrifying words of King.
"I have a dream," he sang out in that deep, rich, southern voice of his.
a dream that one day the nation will rise up, live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal."
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream…
And he went on, telling of his dreams that "even Mississippi" one day would be transformed "into an oasis of freedom and justice"; that his four little children would "one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character."
Few of the millions who heard the eloquent words, I fancy, would ever forget them.
It was silly to brand as "rubbish" these events and many more such as the Selma March, Woodstock, the brutality of Mayor Daley's Chicago police against the young peaceniks at the Democratic Convention in 1968, or other massive demonstrations against the Vietnam War, the angry reaction against the U.S. Army's atrocities at My Lai in Vietnam, and the mindless killings by the Ohio National Guard at Kent State. And I was surprised to see the usually balanced Teddy White, a witness at the scene, castigate the youthful demonstrators at Chicago and an equally balanced commentator, George Kennan, criticize the nation's youths for their uncouth behavior.
I applauded their revolt. The college generation of the 1950s, to which I had often lectured, had been cowered by McCarthyism, it seemed to me. It had chosen to play it safe as our collegians would do in the seventies and eighties: go for a good job in business and refrain from having or expressing any dangerous-or serious-thoughts.
In many instances in the sixties the students, in the heady excitement of revolt, may have gone too far as they did at Columbia when they seized President Kirk's office and destroyed valuable papers or at Cornell where black students took up arms. But on the whole, shaking up the staid and insensitive administrations of our colleges and universities was probably overdue. At any rate, I liked young people who stood for something beyond achieving safe careers and were willing to risk life and limb against the billy clubs and bayoneted rifles of the police and the National Guard to express it. I joined them in their opposition to the Vietnam War.
Some things about them, I confess, I did not understand. Their obsession with rock music-the louder the better. Their gathering at Woodstock, New York, in August 1969, for example, to listen to a whole weekend of it. Originally the promoters had hoped to draw fifty thousand youths to their rock music festival. But four hundred thousand showed up, blocking the roads, seeking food, drink, and shelter in vain, and milling about in some disorder before they settled down. Two cloudbursts turned the area into a quagmire. Reporters for the New York daily newspapers predicted disaster. There was no one to keep order for nearly a half million people, full of youthful energy not to mention, they said, "grass" and liquor. The Times's reporters, it seemed to me, were particularly hostile to the youths. The newspaper's editorials condemned them.
Yet, on the whole, the young people conducted themselves admirably in difficult circumstances. Sandwiched in as they were, with little food or even water and minimal sanitary facilities, they did not panic or riot. The tone was set by one of the first entertainers. Looking over the vast throng, standing shoulder to shoulder, he said over the loudspeaker: "If we're going to make it, you had better remember that the guy next to you is your brother." It set the tone for the gathering that grew into a sort of feeling of generational unity. Later many participants would talk of the "Woodstock Nation."
***
After so much turmoil an event occurred at the end of the decade that staggered the imagination and united Americans in a great common pride. On July 20, 1969, man landed and walked on the moon.
Two American astronauts, Neil A. Armstrong, a civilian, and Colonel Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., of the air force, detached their lunar module "The Eagle" from the Apollo spaceship, which had been circling the moon, after taking off from Earth three days earlier, and steered it down to safe landing on the rock-strewn surface of the moon.
What mankind had speculated on and dreamed of for millennia had taken place. Human beings from Earth had traveled to another planet. It was almost too tremendous to believe. But there was no doubting. Hundreds of millions throughout the world could see it on television. They watched Neil Armstrong slowly descend the ladder of his frail craft, and as his foot touched the barren surface, exclaim: "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
Like almost everyone else on our planet, I dropped whatever I was doing and sat glued before the TV set, watching. The moon landing was a triumph for man's spirit, for his resolve, for his creation of the incredible technology necessary and for bravery-bravery of two American men. The great voyage had been made. But could the astronauts blast off in what looked like a very rickety contraption, return safely to their spaceship, and then fly back to Earth? I put the question in my diary and added: "One prays that they'll get back. But I feel a pit in my stomach about it. The blast-off machinery, though tested at home, has never been tested on the moon." If it didn't work, two splendid human beings would be left to die on this desolate place when their oxygen gave out-in a day or two.
Listening to the countdown to blast-off was one of the most excruciating moments of my life.
My diary, Monday, July 21, 1969:
The two astronauts successfully blasted off the moon today in their frail craft and rejoined the spaceship, which had been orbiting the moon while they were there. Another incredible feat-beyond the imagination.
***
Thursday, July 24, 1969…The astronauts returned safely to earth today. A happy, wonderful conclusion to man's first trip to the moon.
Looking over my diary nineteen years later, in July of 1988, I was a little surprised to see that in it I had also raised some questions about this awesome achievement. The pictures the television gave us of the moon were so bleak.
Was it worth it-some 35 billion dollars and the risk of lives? To get to so dismal a place? And what, except for scientific data, is the good of the moon to earthbound men? No atmosphere, no air there to support human life. Probably nothing worth much on the moon's surface. And even if there were, how could it be brought back?…
All right, it was a mighty feat, tremendous…perhaps man's greatest feat in his entire existence, the discoveries of Columbus, of Magellan, etc. paling beside it. But at least they journeyed through the unknown oceans to a new continent where life was easily supportable.
I suppose it's typical of man, especially in America, that he will spend billions to get to the moon but simply will not spend an equal amount to make this place on earth a bit more habitable…to easing the misery of the millions of the poor, giving them enough food and decent shelter, and rebuilding the slums of the great cities where most of them live.
I cited other dire needs in our great country. Better education, adequate housing, medical care.
Now nineteen years later, I wonder about my carping. It seems petty in the midst of so much celebration of a tremendous human achievement. It occurs to me now that the same gripes might have been made in Spain and Portugal about the expeditions of Columbus and Magellan. If the outcry against spending so much money for such a dubious purpose had been loud enough, the expeditions might never have taken place; America might have remained undiscovered, and I and a few hundred million others might not be here today.
Still, glancing through the yellowing pages of the New York Times for Monday, July 21, 1969, with its huge banner headline in type one inch high, "MAN WALKS ON MOON," I noticed that this great organ of the establishment took a view somewhat similar to mine.
Man has realized the unrealizable because he dared to conceive the inconceivable….
And there lies the irony inherent in the most extraordinary expression of man's prowess….
For all his resplendent glory as he steps forth on another planet, man is still a pathetic creature, able to master outer space and yet unable to control his inner self; able to conquer new worlds yet unable to live in peace on this one; able to create miracles of science and yet unable properly to house and clothe and feed all his fellow men; able eventually to colonize an alien and hostile environment and yet increasingly unable to come to terms with his natural environment that is his home.
The great question, the Times concluded, was
whether the magnificent accomplishment celebrated throughout the world today will at last inspire man to achieve the age-old goals of which he is capable: life in harmony with nature, peace with his fellow men and a just society on this no longer lonely planet.
Nineteen years later, as this is written, it can hardly be said that the moon landing inspired any such thing.
***
On Wednesday, November 8, 1972, I began my diary by noting Richard Nixon's reelection the previous day. He had beaten Senator George McGovern in a landslide. "Incredible!" I exclaimed. "Incredible that the vast majority would choose this devious man." I mentioned the growing corruption in his administration and added:
Recently his operatives were caught bugging Democratic National Headquarters and pilfering it. As Henry Commager said in a recent piece, no Administration in history has been so crooked, so lying, etc. But the citizens didn't care.
The break-in at the headquarters of the Democratic party in Washington in an apartment complex called "Watergate" had scarcely threatened to become a scandal. During the last week of the presidential election campaign supporters of McGovern had miraculously raised enough money to buy television time for one last speech by the candidate, who was faring terribly in the polls. McGovern spent most of his broadcast denouncing Nixon for the "Watergate Affair," predicting that it would turn out to be one of the worst political scandals in the history of the American presidency. The speech impressed me and many others in Massachusetts, the only state in the Union that would go for McGovern. But it made little impression on the country. Reporters covering the election largely ignored it. The nation's newspaper editorials were silent about it. I remember one TV network reporter asking a farmer's wife in Wisconsin what she thought of Watergate. "Watergate? Never heard of it. What is it? A fountain or something?"
The great country, enthusiastic about four more years of Nixon, would take a good deal of time before it began to take Watergate seriously. Nixon's press secretary called it "the Watergate caper" and "a third-rate burglary" and refused further comment, he said, on so trifling a matter. But gradually the country, thanks to the brilliant reporting of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post, became conscious of it, conscious that something was wrong at the Nixon White House, that the reelected president and his men may have been up to serious crimes and were trying to cover them up. Within a year what up to then had seemed the unbelievable, the unspeakable, was beginning to be spoken or at least whispered: the possible impeachment of the president of the United States. Not since the presidency of Andrew Johnson in 1868, when the House of Representatives voted to impeach him, had this happened to a president.[70]
In 1974 matters reached a climax and a denouement, the most extraordinary the nation had ever experienced. It was the most exciting year I had lived through since coming home twenty-nine years before. To the veteran Washington correspondent, TRB, summing up the year in the New Republic:
In 50 years of Washington reporting this has been the most dramatic year I have ever known. Historians will come to it with a sense of disbelief, and for us who saw it unfold at first hand…there was the same incredulity.
Toward the end of the previous year the vice-president of the United States, Spiro Agnew, had resigned to escape prison. In a sordid deal, as I put it in my diary, the Department of Justice allowed Agnew, who, like the president, had been lecturing Americans for six years about morality, to resign in return for promising not to prosecute him except for income tax fraud, for which he received only a fine. Nixon appointed Gerald Ford, the genial, loyal, plodding Republican minority leader in the House, to succeed him. Since then Ford had gone around for months proclaiming President Nixon innocent of any involvement in the Watergate affair or its coverup. He had seen the documents, he said, and they cleared the president. The chief documents consisted of tapes of conversations Nixon had with his men in the White House-he himself set up the unusual process of taping them.
All through the previous summer, 1973, a special Senate committee under Senator Sam Erwin had held televised hearings about Watergate. It had begun to unravel the story, among other things establishing that Nixon had set up special units to break into the offices and homes of former officials suspected of leaking documents damaging to the administration or of Americans who merely dissented from the dictates of Richard Nixon. But the Senate committee had not found "the smoking gun"-the evidence that would convict the president of willful obstruction of justice, an impeachable offense. Neither had the House Judiciary Committee under a folksy New Jersey lawyer, Peter Rodino, which as 1974 progressed began to press for impeachment. The evidence, both committees were sure, would be found in the tapes. But Nixon refused to hand them over, despite court-issued subpoenas. The investigators, though, continued to close in on him, and on April 29, 1974, my diary reminds me, the president went on national television to announce that he was making public twelve hundred pages of transcripts of his taped Watergate conversations-"all that was relevant," he said, except the profanity.
This was a lie, as we would soon learn. But even that night, as I watched and listened to the president speaking from his Oval Office in the White House with stacks of the transcripts piled up behind him, I felt he was perpetrating a fraud. If he had nothing to hide, why didn't he produce the tapes themselves-all of them? Already the Senate committee had discovered that eighteen and a half minutes of one tape of a conversation he had with J. R. Haldeman, his right-hand man at the White House, about the Watergate cover-up had been "erased"-inadvertently, Nixon claimed. And wasn't it suspicious that the president was fighting in the courts to prevent the subpoenaed tapes from being turned over to the special prosecutor and the House Judiciary Committee?
That litigation was soon settled. I noted it in my diary, summing up the unbelievable year.
…On July 19 [1974], John Doar, chief counsel to the House Judiciary Committee, presented it with a devastating Bill of Particulars for impeachment. Still, most Republicans on the committee argued that there still was not evidence. It was shortly to come, even for them. At the end of July the Supreme Court unanimously ordered Nixon to hand over to the special prosecutor all the tapes he had asked for. One was particularly damaging and when the president saw that it could no longer be withheld he released it himself.
This was the tape of a conversation Nixon had with his chief of staff, Haldeman, on June 23, 1972, on how they could hush up the scandal of the Watergate break-in. Nixon had succeeded in getting the Justice Department and the CIA to lay off any further investigations. In the case of the latter it was explained that the CIA had decided that "national security" interests were involved and had to be protected. But the FBI insisted on pursuing its investigation. Nixon had tried to call them off but to no avail. On June 23, 1972, Nixon and Haldeman had had a long conference at the end of which Nixon, plainly exasperated by the FBI's stubbornness in carrying on its queries, told Haldeman to call in the FBI and say to them on behalf of the president: "Don't go any further into this case. Period."
This was the evidence [I wrote in my diary] of the president's obstruction of justice the special prosecutor and the House Judiciary Committee had been waiting for. Nixon issued a statement of regret[71] and pleaded that he did not think it was sufficiently serious to warrant impeachment. But even the Republicans on the Committee, who now felt double-crossed by Nixon, thought otherwise and joined the others in approving impeachment. The die was cast. Senate Republican leaders finally got up nerve enough to tell him that he was certain to be impeached. If so, he would lose his presidential pension and other monetary benefits. If he resigned, he would save them.
***
Lenox, Friday, August 9, 1974. For the first time in our history a president has resigned. Shortly after 9 P.M. last night Richard M. Nixon went on TV and announced his resignation. Though he and his toady aides had insisted to the last moment that he would not quit ("I am not a quitter!") his going became inevitable last Monday (Aug. 5). Forced by the Supreme Court to turn over the tapes of the June 23, 1972, meeting with Haldeman and realizing that they would soon become known and published, he released them last Monday. They destroyed what was left of this devious, hollow man, whom the American people reelected in 1972 by the biggest majority in history. They showed, what he had tried to deny to the last moment, that he had obstructed justice, an impeachable offense.…It exposed the president as a liar. He was finished.
A brazen man, he could not quite face it. He tried to squirm out all day Monday and Tuesday. But on Wednesday a group of conservative Republican senators called on him to tell him that as the result of Monday's disclosures he would certainly be found guilty by an overwhelming majority in an impeachment trial in the Senate (that the House would vote to impeach, even he finally admitted Monday), he saw he could squirm no further and decided to resign. Today at noon, Vice-President Gerald Ford will be sworn in as the 38th president.[72]
…Good riddance! What I felt about him from the first finally got through to the American people.
***
Lenox, New Years Day, 1976.…So ended a tumultuous year. We have now for the first time a president and a vice-president (Ford and Rockefeller) who were appointed by presidents and approved by Congress, but not elected by the people.[73]
Nineteen seventy-four was remarkable for another happening that much occupied our good people. My diary review of the year began with it.
The Arab oil embargo and the quadrupling of oil prices suddenly threatened the very existence of the Western countries, especially our own, since their economies, social structure and way of life were based on cheap crude oil which enable the motorcar civilization and even the heating of our homes to function. The central assumption of our age in the West (and in Japan) was that we were living through an indefinite period of unlimited growth and infinite resources.…We must now adjust to the hard fact of life that resources are limited and that an affluent existence based on what we thought were unlimited resources is over.
CHAPTER 5
Back on February 23, 1971, I began my diary:
67 today!…Will I write anything important still? Some have, after 67….
The France book over, I had decided to have a try at some memoirs. I had lived through nearly three-quarters of the tumultuous twentieth century-from the horse-and-buggy age to the nuclear and space era. Those seventy-odd years had seen more changes on earth than in the previous two thousand years. I had had the luck to witness some of the historic occasions and turning points of the century: the revolution in India and the rise of Gandhi, the breakdown of the old order in Europe, the advent of Communism and Fascism, the seeming decay of Western democracy, the eroding of the two great European empires, British and French, and the weakening of Britain and France, the resurgence of Germany under a brutal but popular dictator and a mindless but also popular Nazi ideology, and the coming of the greatest, bloodiest, and most costly world war ever fought. I thought what I had seen and tried to learn might be of some interest to American readers.
My publishers were not so sure. Simon and Schuster had made a small fortune on The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, and it had not done too badly with the next book, on the fall of France. Perhaps it thought that no more "big" books-that is, very profitable books-were in me. Perhaps it was because this fine publishing house, founded during the Depression by Dick Simon and Max Schuster, had been taken over by a conglomerate, Gulf & Western, which had no particular interest in book publishing except that it show a profit-and the bigger the better.
At any rate, Simon and Schuster showed no great enthusiasm for my doing some memoirs. My new editor seemed to share that skepticism. I have a stubborn streak, and despite my publisher's misgivings I went ahead with the first volume. I hoped to make it not so much a memoir of myself but of the times I had lived through-a journey through the twentieth century and from one world to another, or to several others.
***
Even for writing memoirs, a good deal of research is necessary. If you try to write about your life and the times you've lived through solely from memory, without a note, as a friend of mine, a distinguished poet and critic, tried to do, you are liable to end up with very little-at best, with a novel.
My family and friends kidded me for never throwing anything away. But as I plunged into Memoirs I, as I called it, I was glad I never had. My diaries, my correspondence, my clippings, were not only invaluable-without them I never could have written the books.
But for the early years there was very little to go on. So I took off to Chicago, where I had been born in 1904, and spent days going over old files to see what it was like in this raucous, dynamic city at the turn of the century. That was where I first put down my American roots. That was where I began to be formed.
To my surprise, even the Chicago Tribune, which once had fired me and later on the front page had told its readers what a lousy foreign correspondent I had been for it, was friendly and helpful. Colonel McCormick, the old tyrant publisher and chief owner who had so poisoned the paper with his outlandish prejudices, was dead. The Tribune had improved greatly since his demise. The new managing editor put the paper's archives at my disposal. From these and other sources I began to get the flavor of the Midwest metropolis where I was born and, for that matter, of the whole Midwest where I grew up.
I knew very little about my father, who had died in Chicago in 1913 when he was only forty-two and I, nine. I did not know much either about my mother; she was always very reticent about talking of herself.
But some of their papers came into my hands on my brother's death, and I learned more: that they had grown up in Iowa, she in Cedar Rapids and he on a farm near LaPorte; that they had met while students at Cornell College in Mt. Vernon, Iowa, and married after he moved on to Chicago to pursue a career as a lawyer. Her forebears had fought in the American Revolution; her father had joined the Union Army at seventeen when the Civil War began and had seen action at Gettysburg and other places. My father's ancestors were German, having emigrated from the Rhineland around 1840 to seek freedom on our shores. His father was the first to be born in the family in America and to speak English without a German accent. He was a farmer in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa and a cattle breeder. But in the 1880s he sold a prosperous Iowa farm and moved to Mt. Vernon in order to give his four children a college education.
Such was my American background. But I did not put it down at once. I began the book by describing my escape from Iowa to Paris, the year I graduated from Coe College, a small but excellent Presbyterian institution of learning, in June 1925. That was where my real life and work began. Everything else, grade school, high school, and college, had been a preparation.
I finished the first volume of the memoirs early in 1975, and it was published in the fall of the following year. The overall title of the memoirs was 20th Century Journey-A Memoir of a Life and the Times. I called the first volume The Start: 1904-1930.
The reviews were varied and on the whole good, though a couple of reviewers found the book "strangely disappointing." I was reminded of how differently various persons see the same thing.
Robert Kirsch, an old favorite of mine though I did not know him personally, wrote in the Los Angeles Times some things about me that I was not much aware of:
…his life and experience formed Shirer, forced him to see beyond illusion and stereotype. That shaping…energizes the deepest levels of this memoir. This is…to be found…in Shirer's ability to evoke people, times and places with the excitement of a Midwestern small-town boy and the sophistication of a man who has been around….
His life has paralleled history and he illuminates it in this narrative, informal, detailed, honest searching.
I did not know Alden Whitman personally either, but I had liked his book reviews and obituaries when he was on the New York Times. Now writing in Newsday, he thought that "Journey belongs to the great tradition of autobiographical history." Since it was autobiography, Whitman, like some other reviewers, speculated about what kind of a person I was. He liked my "lifelong skepticism" and my "moral passion," which he thought I
translated into an active sympathy for the men and women who produce society's goods and services yet reap so few of its benefits. What gives it [the depiction of life in America during the first quarter of the century] its special life is Shirer's liberal and humane point of view, his deadly shots at piosity and cant.
This was a time when the word "liberal" was beginning to be looked upon by Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, George Bush, and their followers as a dirty word, denoting, as they put it, some poor American slob "out in left field." I was, and am, proud to bear that label whether I deserve it or not. Though the Nixons, the Reagans, and the Bushes did not know it, it is the term most Americans use when they think of Jefferson and Jackson and Lincoln and Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt, not to mention Walt Whitman and Thoreau among others.
Somewhat to my surprise Alden Whitman thought I came across in the book as "a patient and very pleasant school master."
"In a trench coat?" he asked. He could not tell. (Most of us wore trench coats in those days in Europe and Asia. It was the only kind of all-weather coat there was.)
Finally I reminded Whitman of Lincoln Steffens, actually one of my youthful idols, whose autobiography enriched us all.
Shirer has Steffens' humaneness of spirit. But above all he has his own exciting inquisitiveness. Good reporters…never lose their childhood curiosity. When this is fused, as in Shirer's case, with an abiding faith in man's potential capacity to handle the truth about himself, the result is a book that is a must reading.
"Must reading" was the sort of admonition my publishers liked. They thought the reviews coming in were "terrific." Some were, like those of Whitman and Kirsch. Ted Morgan wrote a four-column piece in the Saturday Review, which my editor, who sent it on to me, exclaimed was "just terrific." "The 'smalltown boy makes good' story is one of the things," he wrote, "that make William Shirer's 20th Century Journey so affecting and so eminently worth reading." He liked, especially, the first part, which he called a "meditation on America."
Shirer had to leave America to understand it. Only after his European experience could he appreciate the virtues of his upbringing and realize that what he had left behind was not as undeserving as he had imagined.
Some reviewers went overboard, I thought, in their enthusiasm for the book. Caspar Nannes in the Washington Star concluded a long review:
"20th Century Journey" is a masterpiece in its genre. It is not only the chronicle of an individual but an illuminating picture of the history of Europe and America from 1904 to 1930. Shirer writes superbly and with an undeviating clarity. Based upon a journalist's experience, the book moves up to the high reaches of great literature. It is one of the few books of our time that should last indefinitely.
Even the Wall Street Journal and the National Observer were kind and understanding, despite views that must have seemed anathema to such conservative journals.
If the Washington Star man thought the book "a masterpiece," a reviewer in the rival Washington Post thought it was "largely a disappointment."
For Shirer tries to tell too much and ends up by not telling us enough.…His memoirs therefore are somewhat superfluous.
Richard J. Margolis in Bookletter also found the first volume of memoirs "oddly disappointing." He did not like my disparagement of Main Street Babbittry America, from which so many of us fled in the 1920s, claiming that we set out "in pursuit of fame and fortune" and that what "many" of us wanted "most of all was to impress the folks back home."
Shirer was among "those crazy boatloads of Americans," as Fitzgerald called them, who for one brief moment thought they had found the right side of paradise.
A staff reporter, Mark Green, in the esteemed Patriot Ledger of Quincy, Massachusetts, really went after me. The book was a "phony," he pronounced. It was also "absurdly pretentious." He thought my quoting Euripides, Pindar, Pascal, Mark Twain, and other such at the beginning of my book and citing William Allen White, Isadora Duncan, Emily Dickinson, George Santayana, Stendhal (which he misspelled) in the introduction was an example of my pretentiousness.[74]
And to this intellectual name-dropping the narrative adds social name-dropping, for this is all his life-experience boils down to, as he boils it down.
This time the New York Times did not clobber me, as it had done with my previous book. The memoirs were given for the Sunday Review to that veteran critic and chronicler of the "lost generation" in Paris, Malcolm Cowley, who was most generous in his comments. Naturally he liked the Paris chapters the best, but he took notice of the part that history played in the narrative. In fact, he found the book to be "another contemporary history rather than a true memoir." Amidst all the characters in the book he found one was missing. "The missing person," he concluded, "is William L. Shirer."
The daily review in the Times this time was written by someone I could not identify: Maurice Carroll, apparently a reporter on the newspaper. He found the memoirs "a good book by a good reporter." He looked forward to the next volume. But he seemed a little concerned about being too enthusiastic. "Maybe," he wrote, "I liked the book more than I should have."
The review of Stanley Karnow, himself a veteran foreign correspondent, in the Washington Post raised for me, at least, an interesting question. He did not like my writing about the early years of the century in America in which I had tried to sketch the background of the years I was growing up. (Some reviewers thought it was the best part of the book.) "All this material," he argued, "is too familiar to bear repeating."
This is a common complaint of many reviewers and I think it is silly. The last word about any period of history has not, and never will be, said. There are always new insights. Perhaps my account lacked them. But to put historical eras "off limits" and proclaim that they are "too familiar to bear repeating" is to be blind to the past. It shows arrogance and ignorance.
The first reviews of a book in this country, my publishers reminded me, come out in Publishers Weekly and Kirkus Reviews, and many bookstores base their orders on these initial reports. So when they came out, though the review in Publishers Weekly was quite favorable, the one in Kirkus Reviews was, as my editor wrote me, "snotty." It certainly seemed to me to be an odd reaction to the book. The anonymous reviewer concluded, "sadly," he said, that I was "mean-spirited." He was particularly shocked by "my sheer aggressiveness" when "at nine or so he pummeled his 'bitchy, ugly, old grandma' into submission, an incident he relates without embarrassment."
To the reviewer that seemed to be the most important event of a book that tried to tell of growing up in America at the turn of the century and what the country was like then and reporting contemporary history in Europe during the 1920s. And he slanted his account of that rather unimportant happening. I, of course, never "pummeled" my grandmother "into submission." As I related, one day, after years of taking her thrashings, I hit back and that ended the practice. It was a tiny tale of boyhood. Kirkus Reviews blew it up into a major battle that proved my "sheer aggressiveness" and my "mean spirit."
The publishers were afraid this initial bit of foolish and irresponsible reporting might discourage the bookstores from trying to sell the book. But apparently it was not taken seriously. At any rate, the first volume of memoirs got off to a good start, was a featured alternate of the Book-of-the-Month Club, and did fairly well.
***
If my publisher was lukewarm about the first volume of memoirs, it was positively chilly about the next book, a memoir of Gandhi. I had tried to write it first as the opening section of the second volume of memoirs, since the first volume had ended with my receipt in Vienna of a three-word cable from Colonel McCormick, the lord of the Chicago Tribune: "SHIRER FLY INDIA."
Eventually I agreed with Simon and Schuster that the Gandhi part did not fit into the volume, which was going to be mostly about my life and work in Nazi Germany. I thereupon proposed that we take it out and make it a separate book. It seemed to me that Gandhi had been the greatest man of our time, that it had been a lucky break for me to get to know him while covering the revolution against British rule in India in 1930 and 1931 and that this small book about him, a work of love on my part, was worth publishing.
Simon and Schuster did not agree. The publishing house, now quite changed, I thought, under the ownership of Gulf & Western, was not interested, it said, in bringing out a memoir of Gandhi. In fact, it objected to my publishing such a memoir. It wanted me to go back to the second volume of the memoirs, take out the Gandhi section, and go ahead with the time in Nazi Germany and the coming of World War II and its aftermath, completing the whole project. They wanted no Volume III.
"The American reading public," my editor wrote me, "does not take to multi-volume autobiographies. Two is really the limit. To try to spread it past that is an act of self-destruction."
After wrapping up the memoirs in the second volume, I could go on, if I liked, and do a big biography of Gandhi. But I must not make it a memoir. That, said Simon and Schuster, would detract from the two-volume general memoir.
Having agreed to take the Gandhi section out of Memoirs II, I tried to persuade Simon and Schuster to change its mind and publish it as a separate book, calling it a memoir, which it was. I was not interested, I said, in doing a straight biography. It was probably beyond my capacity at my age. I was turning seventy-six. But a memoir springing out of my experience in India with Gandhi-a unique experience for an American journalist, I thought-was already written, ready to be published.
Perhaps I wore them down by my perseverance. In the end, and most reluctantly, they promised to publish the book. After a long struggle they even agreed to calling it a "memoir" in the title: Gandhi-A Memoir.
It came out January 14, 1980, amidst the usual complaints from the author, all of them, I thought, justified. In June, I had written my editor of "my shock and deep disappointment" ("shock" was a little strong, I admit) that the book would not be published in the fall, as promised, in time for Christmas when more books are sold than at any other season. We had proofs already at the beginning of June. I wrote that bookstore managers had always assured me that January is the worst month of the year, except for August, to sell books. Most people have done their book-buying for Christmas and are in no mood to buy further books until spring. An owner-manager of a big bookstore in Washington had even written me a memo to that effect.
"You had assured me of 'fall publication,'" I wrote my editor. "January is not the fall-in any calendar."
"It certainly is, Bill, in the book-publishing world," he replied in a letter that astonished me. There were only two seasons for book publishers, he explained, spring and fall. The latter season, he wrote, "went from September through February."
So January publication was "a fall publication"!
He went on. "November really is a bum month in which to publish, whereas January, regardless of what you've been told, is one of the very best-country miles better than November." The book, he said, wouldn't have done very well for Christmas even if it had been available in the bookstores.
To be honest, Bill, in our opinion, GANDHI isn't exactly a natural and obvious choice for a Christmas present despite its appeal to the spirit.
I griped about the steep price of the 240-page book. Simon and Schuster had listed it in its fall catalogue at $9.95. But when it came out, they jumped the price to $12.95, an increase of three dollars a book or twenty-three percent. When I asked the head of the firm why there was such a steep and sudden rise in the price, he replied that if I "looked around, I would see 'a world-wide inflation going on.'" I had looked around and, like everyone else, been aware of inflation. But I had not noticed it rising by twenty-three percent in three months at the end of 1979, and it hadn't.
And, of course, like all authors I complained about the publisher's not pushing the book. As they said in the trade, Simon and Schuster printed the book but scarcely published it. A full-page ad in the Sunday New York Times Book Review got the work off to a good start but then sales fell off shortly to nothing. I did what I could to promote the book: dozens of interviews in the press and on the talk shows. The Book-of-the-Month Club made Gandhi an alternate selection. And despite prominently displayed reviews, many of them controversial, several favorable, the book did not make the best-seller lists; and Simon and Schuster soon dropped it. Until…a few years later word got around that Richard Attenborough was doing what I thought would have been impossible: a film about Gandhi. Then there were rumors that it was a masterpiece.[75] Over at Simon and Schuster there was sudden interest. A new paperback edition was hastily brought out to appear about the time the film opened.
***
Reviews of the Gandhi book were mixed-most favorable, some controversial, a few hostile and highly critical. Two or three, I thought, were simply silly. The piece by Robert Kirsch in the Los Angeles Times was typical of the reviewers who found much to admire. He saw the book as "a moving and tough-minded memoir of Gandhi."
The review in the Chicago Tribune, which had sent me out to India to cover Gandhi, was, to my surprise, quite favorable and understanding. I had been caustic and unsparing in depicting Colonel Robert R. McCormick, the authoritarian monarch of the Tribune, in my first volume of memoirs. The colonel now was gone and the present editors apparently did not mind what I had written about our former czar. Milton Viorst, an old Washington Post hand, who wrote the Tribune review, concluded that "what Shirer has written is more cameo than psychobiography, but its very modesty is enduring, and from it emerges an authentic figure."
The Washington Post again clobbered me, this time with a review by one of its foreign correspondents who, it said, had served in Southeast Asia for the last ten years. He pooh-poohed my admiration of Gandhi and insisted that there was in Gandhi "a great deal of hokus-pokus, of showmanship, of the shrewd politico who knew how to play to the grandstands at home and abroad." Such demeaning of a man who Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last British viceroy in India, had said would "go down in history on a par with Buddha and Jesus" and who made Einstein exclaim: "Generations to come, it may well be, will scarce believe that such a man as this ever in flesh and blood walked upon this earth." Was the generation of foreign correspondents which had followed mine trying to show how tough and realistic (and mindless) it was? Gandhi-"a hokus-pokus politico"?
In the New York Times, I batted .500. In the Sunday Times Book Review, I did quite well. James Cameron, a distinguished British foreign correspondent who knew India well, discussed the Gandhi book seriously and thoughtfully.
John Leonard in the daily Times poked fun at Gandhi and the author in his familiar Manhattan wise-cracking, smart-alec way. Decidedly I did not have too much luck with the daily reviewers in the Times. Leonard's piece, I thought, was typical of some book reviews in this country by staff writers who seek to cover up their ignorance of a subject by wise-cracking their way through their reviews. They do not subscribe to a rule scrupulously followed by Lewis Gannett, in his daily reviews in the New York Herald-Tribune, that no matter whether you liked the book or not, no matter how ignorant you were of its subject matter, you were obliged in all honesty to try to give the reader some idea of what the book was all about. Leonard was obsessed with reports of Gandhi's smile, which, he pontificated, "was the center of Gandhi's myth." He found that "Shirer positively babbles about it." He himself prattled on for most of his column on the subject, oblivious to anything more important or interesting about the great Hindu leader.
We demand to know whether or not behind the smile-Buddha? Gioconda? Cheshire cat?-there was an arrogance of humility, a masochism and perfectionism, an ambition for power through self-denial.
I was not around when the reviews came out. An insert in a review on a page called "Friday's Bookshelf" in the Milwaukee Journal, January 11, 1980, explained why.
Shirer was in satisfactory condition Thursday after undergoing open heart surgery at Mount Sinai Medical Center. Shirer, 75, of Lenox, Mass., underwent eight hours of surgery Wednesday. He received three bypasses.
Again I had been lucky.
I had flown down to Sarasota, Florida, to spend the Christmas-New Year holidays that year with friends. As usual I had eaten too much and had a few extra drinks and was feeling like many do after New Year's Eve-a little under the weather.
I had had a slight scare shortly before Christmas up in Lenox when my doctor had discovered a little angina. But I had taken a stress test and apparently passed it satisfactorily. The results had been sent off to Boston for further analysis, but the heart doctor had given me a copy of his report. I did not understand its technical language, but I put it in my pocket and forgot it.
A day or two before my flight home from Sarasota the head of the family I was staying with, a doctor, suggested I see a heart specialist just as a precaution. He knew a young cardiologist who had come down from New York recently to practice in the town. I waved aside the suggestion, but my friend grew insistent, and finally I gave in. We called on the doctor on a Saturday afternoon, January 5, 1980. His staff was off, but he had agreed to see me anyway. I regarded it as sort of a "courtesy" call. As I sat down in his office with my friends, he asked me if I had a copy of the recent stress test in Lenox. I pulled it out of my pocket, remarking that perhaps he could give me a layman's explanation of it. He glanced over it with sort of a poker face, looked up, and asked me to go down the hall to a room where he said he would like to do another stress test. As the door closed behind me, he turned to my friends, they told me later, and said: "This is the second worst stress test report I have ever seen. I'm afraid this man is about finished."
I flunked his stress test. I gave up, out of breath, after a couple of minutes on the treadmill. The doctor then advised doing an immediate catheterization. In this the physician inserts a small tube up a vein from the thigh to the heart. At its end is a small camera that miraculously photographs the heart and, in fact, flashes pictures on a screen. Though I am usually squeamish about such things, I remember watching it with utter fascination. The conclusion was that there were severe blockages in three main arteries that carry blood to the heart; two of them were almost completely stopped up-ninety-nine percent, the doctor said.
He explained that I couldn't last many more days with such blockages and advised immediate open heart surgery. After telephoning to several heart surgeons around the country, he picked Dr. Dudley Johnson, who was then practicing at the Mount Sinai Medical Center in Milwaukee. Before I knew it he had me on a plane to that destination. Such was my first meeting with Dr. Gene E. Myers of Sarasota. He saved my life as, of course, did Dr. Johnson, who successfully performed the eight-hour operation after running into three or four unforeseen complications.
For several years after it I felt better than I had for a long time. Recently, though, as I began to advance through my eighties-I'm eighty-four at this writing-I found that I had to slow up. Plenty of exercise and a good diet is the secret of survival for most heart patients. But I have had of late to curtail the first a little, giving up skiing and heavy gardening and long walks but keeping up the sailing, puttering in the garden, and doing twenty-five minutes of exercises, including five minutes of shadow-boxing (cut down from nine) and ten minutes on a stationary bike each morning. Up to now the heart surgery in 1980 prolonged my life by eight years-and healthy years to boot.
I must say I've been grateful to have had them. Though I know I gripe more about the sad state of the world than the average citizen and still resent life's inequalities, brutality, the plight of the poor and the homeless, the greed and arrogance of the rich, and much more, I myself have continued to have an enormous appetite for life, a zest for it. Work and play and good health have enabled me to love every minute of the last eight years.
And finally, like everyone else, I survived eight years of Ronald Reagan's reign in the White House. He was one of the great phenomena of modern politics. The worse he did, in my opinion, the more shortcomings he exhibited, the more popular he became among our people. He was tough on unions, and organized labor voted for him. He favored the rich, who got richer while the poor got poorer. He deprived the poor of more and more benefits until millions lived in disgraceful poverty, but the poor voted for him. He piled up more public debt than all the previous presidents put together, but the American people did not hold it against him. He spent billions of their tax dollars on Star Wars, which surely will turn out to have been a hoax; but the people applauded him.
For the entire eight years of his administration, in violation of solemn treaties by which we swore not to interfere directly in the affairs of other countries, he waged a lethal war of his own against Nicaragua with "contra" troops he armed, trained, and financed for the purpose of overthrowing a government that we formally recognized as sovereign and indeed maintained diplomatic relations with. And he had the effrontery to call these U.S.A.-backed mercenaries "freedom fighters," though their military commander and many of his lieutenants had been loyal members of the unsavory Nicaraguan National Guard run by the hated, corrupt, barbarian dictator Somoza. They cared about as much about freedom for Nicaraguans as Somoza, who brutally suppressed it, did.
But Reagan was obsessed with Nicaragua, insisting that the "contra" leaders, whose troops in eight years had never captured a major town or inspired even a local uprising against a shoddy Communist dictatorship, were to be compared to our own Founding Fathers, which was an insult to the latter and to the great Republic they founded-and, of course, a tasteless travesty of history. So thousands were slain by the "contras," including Nicaraguan women and children, so that Ronald Reagan could pursue his little war, doomed though it was to failure. And a surprisingly large number of Americans, and the Republican party itself, along with many Democrats, supported him. Just as at first, at least, they had backed our war "against Communism" in faraway Vietnam. For Vietnam, though, the backing melted away. For Nicaragua it held steady over eight years, though the majority of citizens-if the polls are to be believed-gradually turned against the dismal war.
Communism, which had failed in Russia and in the Iron Curtain countries, had its greatest triumph in the way it befuddled the American people and their government. Any old bloody dictator obtained our support if he prattled his "anti-Communism" loudly enough. I never understood how we became such suckers. We are not normally so naïve and so stupid.
***
My diary for Sarasota, January 7, 1981, reviewed the previous year: the heart surgery at its beginning, the gradual six months' recovery, the prospects for the future. My life had been saved, but for how long?
…I won't say I'm ready to go. I'm not. I'd like to finish the Memoirs.…And maybe have a few more years in such a pleasant place as Lenox, with the music at Tanglewood, the gardening and sailing, and M's love….
…Much trouble over the year with my publisher, S&S, which since it was taken over by a conglomerate, has been hard to deal with.…S&S let me down on the Gandhi book. And for the first time since I began, with Berlin Diary, writing books that were immediately published, they turned down a manuscript of mine, Vol. II of my memoirs.[76]…No discussion, as a writer used to have with a publisher. They just said they wouldn't publish it.
There had been a letter from my new editor explaining why, in my interest as well as theirs, my manuscript of the second volume would not be published. And there were some telephone calls from Simon and Schuster urging me to accept its decision-again in my interest as well as theirs. It was touching how solicitous my publisher, in rejecting me, was of my "interests." The same editor had argued for hours on the phone that the repayable advance was a better proposition for the author of the Gandhi book than a nonrepayable one.
In our dispute Simon and Schuster certainly had a point. It had contracted for a second volume of my memoirs that would carry the story through my years in Nazi Germany and the war-from 1934 to 1945. The manuscript I had submitted, which was pretty much the one I had originally written, minus the Gandhi portion, covered only the years 1930-1934. But I felt, I told the publisher, that period was an important one in my life and the times.
To publish my manuscript, Simon and Schuster replied, could "do neither of us anything but harm." The editor did not like the "downbeat" nature of the book, especially the expression of my sense of failure. "To segregate them in a volume is self-destructive from a reputation standpoint, nor is it even commercial-very few copies would be sold, and most certainly no book clubs or reprint action."
It was the old shibboleth that in America you had always to be successful. There was no place for failure. If it happened in your life, in your career, don't mention it.
To Simon and Schuster's objections to publishing the book I made two answers: that it was a logical successor to Volume I and was not a bad book; second, that, as all publishers knew from experience, many a book did not turn out as its creator and its publisher envisioned. Manuscripts have a life of their own. The creative process brings strange results that no man can predict. My first book for Simon and Schuster, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, I pointed out, had come out quite differently from what any of us foresaw. Simon and Schuster had contracted for a relatively short book to be finished in a couple of years. In the end it had become a very long book and it was years behind schedule when it was finished. Nevertheless, Simon and Schuster had dared to publish it as is.
But this time, no. My editor finally agreed I could offer the new volume to another publisher if I wished, but Simon and Schuster still retained its rights to bringing out the ensuing volume on the years in Nazi Germany and the war years.
This I could not accept. Finally, after several months of bickering, Simon and Schuster agreed to release me to take the rest of my memoirs elsewhere, subject to my repaying the advance, which I did. But there was one hitch. There remained between us, it said, the matter of Simon and Schuster's "collecting" from me the interest on the advance. In the end it demanded twelve percent over the years the sum had been in my possession.
This astonished me, coming from a company that for twenty years had had the use of a very much larger sum from my royalties that had been withheld by mutual consent. (So as not to pay taxes all at once on royalties from the Third Reich book, the IRS allowed the author, since it was stipulated in his contract, to receive only "X" number of dollars per year and thus spread the tax burden. The money belonged to the writer; he had earned it in royalties. But the publisher had the use of it. It remained in his possession.)
For years Simon and Schuster kept after me to pay interest at the rate of twelve percent on that advance. I refused, and finally the matter just faded away.
The whole episode was a reminder that despite all the talk to the contrary, the true relationship between a publisher and a writer is essentially an adversarial one. It may not be so in every single case, especially in regard to an author whose books continue to be bestsellers, but it is true of most relationships, and a lot of misunderstanding and bad feeling between author and publisher would be alleviated if this were recognized. I suspect most publishers do, though they won't admit it publicly, but many writers don't. Until, as usually happens in the end, they get hurt.
Thanks mainly to the Authors Guild, book contracts today are much fairer to the writer than they were seventy-five years ago when the Guild was founded. (Ex-president Theodore Roosevelt was one of its most militant early members.) Gradually the Guild was able, largely by persuasion, to get the publishers to agree to decent terms. But it was a long, hard struggle. Many publishers resisted change as long as they could.
Even today most contracts strike most writers as still unfair. They do not see why they should give hardcover publishers fifty percent of paperback royalties or the same split on the sale of a book to a book club. The paperback publishers and the book clubs choose a book not because of the way it was published but because of the appeal of the writing. True, if a hardcover publisher has really pushed a book and greatly helped it to become widely known, he deserves something for his effort. Surely twenty-five percent would be more than fair. But he insists, in almost all cases, on fifty percent. I have heard some hardcover publishers argue that if they gave up their fifty-fifty cut, they would go broke. But since most of them are now part of giant corporations, this argument weakens.
A few hardcover publishers will stick to an author through his ups and downs, bringing out the books that sell well and those that don't. But not many these days, and not often. They'll publish you when you make a lot of money for them and drop you when you don't. I was dropped by Knopf one book after Berlin Diary, which had done well enough to help rescue it from financial difficulty, and by Simon and Schuster one book after The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich had netted it a fortune. Many other authors have similar tales to tell. It was in my case, I concluded, as if the publisher had decided I had one big book in me, so far as sales went, and that was it. No need to bother with the guy again. Recently I had come to think that this practice of picking up the booty and then beating it was due mainly to the old individual publishing houses being taken over by the large corporations, which were interested only in profits and regarded a book as a commodity no different from soap. I liked to think that in the old days a writer had personal friends in the old publishing houses. You were on friendly terms with the publisher and your editor, who stuck by you through thick and thin. I know that was the case with John Gunther at Harper's. Cass Canfield, its head, was one of John's closest friends. I gather that is the relationship William Manchester has with Little, Brown. There are, no doubt, other such instances. But they are happy exceptions.
***
Ironically, I returned with a new version of my second volume of memoirs to Little, Brown, from which I had been forced to depart when the then chief editor rejected the very idea of publishing a book I proposed to do on the rise and fall of the Third Reich. I must say I received a warm welcome back, and our consultations were among the most pleasant I have ever had with a publisher. The book, to be fair, was better than the one Simon and Schuster had rejected. The core of it now was my long assignment in Nazi Germany, the nightmare years in that oppressive land. It was the personal side of the story I had told in the book of history about the Third Reich. The people at Little, Brown, especially Roger Donald, my editor, liked it. And they pushed it when it came out. The title: The Nightmare Years-1930-1940.
The reviews were the best I had ever had. Not because most of them were very favorable but because so many of them were so discerning, showing a deep understanding of what I had tried to do. Even the five-column review in The American Scholar, that citadel of academia, was perceptive and sympathetic, though certainly not uncritical. The reviewer thought, for instance, that "the vocabulary of tragedy" was "beyond my reach." "Yet," he continued, "I can think of no other narrative that gives you the disturbing sensation of having lived in suspense throughout the period, not knowing how it was to the end." The American Scholar is essentially literary, and its reviewer was the only one who noticed what I wrote about the reaction of France's greatest living writers to the surrender to the Germans in June 1940.
Shirer prods us with a sad reminder of what happened in 1940 to men who lived by the word, those keepers of the flame whom we now see celebrated without moderation every year in our literary quarterlies. When the doddering Marshal Pétain accepted a prostrate France, before the French army itself had surrendered, not a single man of letters repudiated him. Quite the contrary.
And he quoted my account of what happened to Paul Claudel, François Mauriac, Paul Valéry, and André Gide-the giants of contemporary French literature. They praised Pétain to the skies and meekly accepted France's surrender to the Germans. André Gide thought it might be a good thing for France.
Naomi Bliven's two-page review in The New Yorker was one of the most beautiful and eloquent I had ever had. Time, for the first time, liked a book of mine. In a signed review John Skow called it "an admirable memoir" and added: "At 80…he still writes an unusually fine book." The Philadelphia Inquirer, which had belabored the first volume of memoirs, went overboard on this second volume calling me "the Thucydides of our time," which, of course, I am not. Even Kirkus Reviews, on which bookstores depend for the first word about a book, wrote what my publishers thought was "a rave review." This was quite a contrast to its blast against me for Volume I.
As usual, I got a pretty good review in my hometown newspaper, the Cedar Rapids Gazette, for which I had worked briefly while in college. The reviewer thought I got "off to a slow start." He did not find interesting my adventures in Afghanistan, Ur, Babylon, Bagdad, and Constantinople or the account of my return to Vienna, where I was married and fired, or of the year-off in Spain, whose young Republic was being undermined by Fascism and would soon fall to Franco and his Nazi German and Fascist Italian supporters. He thought the book "seemed to catch on" when I got to Berlin.
Once more I was lucky with the New York Times, the most influential of all newspapers when it comes to new books. The review in the daily edition was written by Herbert Mitgang, a cultural writer but not a regular staff reviewer. He liked my "strong" views and opinions and thought my books had "elevated" me to "the position of contemporary historian." (As we shall see, one academic strongly disagreed.)
John Chancellor, the NBC commentator, reviewed the book in the Sunday Times Book Review. He wrote a genial piece about foreign correspondents, of whom he had been one after the war, expressing admiration for those of us of the previous generation. He did not go overboard about the book, by any means. There was too much history in the work for him. The writing, he felt, was "sometimes repetitive and hurried." But there was "enough adventure in it," he concluded, "to make it well worth reading." I had hoped he would see more in it than "adventure"-the nightmare years in Berlin were beyond adventure-and the last cliché, "well worth reading," struck some as a little condescending but it probably did no harm.
This time not many academics weighed in against me. Some may not have liked the enthusiastic review in The American Scholar or the pieces by some of their brethren in several newspapers in which they hailed me as a historian. But, if so, they did not take to print to attack me.
There was one notable exception, and he bitterly resented anyone's calling me "a historian" or my books, especially The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, "histories." This was one William Sheridan Allen, writing in the Boston Sunday Globe, a newspaper whose reviewers had in the past dismissed most of what I had written. The newspaper identified him as a professor of history at the State University of New York at Buffalo and the author of two books on Nazism, one of which I knew, The Nazi Seizure of Power, based on his studies of a single small town in Germany. I had concluded the sample was too small to explain such a large and fateful event. This led him into the fatal error of absolving the German people of any guilt for Nazism. Professor Allen lost no time in going after me. His piece began:
To begin with, let me be honest: Professional historians do not esteem William L. Shirer. His historical books are simplistic in interpretation, unbalanced in coverage, superficially researched and full of wrong-headed theories. Worst of all, they sell like crazy. His Rise and Fall of the Third Reich sold over ten million copies. Not a single work by a professional historian comes near that. This is exasperating.
***
Actually, the professor professed a sneaking liking for The Nightmare Years. For one thing, he conceded, it was well-written-"professional historians could learn from him what the public likes to read."[77]
So read it, he suggested,
as a gripping account of the personal experiences of a young American midwesterner inside Hitler's inferno, complete with badly flawed data. But I certainly would not accept it as an accurate description of anything except what Shirer observed firsthand, including his own uncorrected misconceptions.
Apparently among my "misconceptions" was my view of the Holocaust. Allen stated I had exaggerated the number of Jews slaughtered in the extermination camps by one million (no one knows, or will ever know, the exact number). He complained that though I "was appalled by the persecution of the Jews," I "never knew that the people of Berlin hid 500 Jews throughout the entire war."
The lives of five hundred Jews in Berlin saved-out of tens of thousands who were slain! Out of some six or seven million, in all, exterminated! Did that excuse the Holocaust?
Allen's review, appalling as it was, and his own works, brought up, I thought, some interesting points. One was the academic's obsession with mere data about Germany collected after the war by university historians who were too young to have observed Nazism at first hand and who resented the writings of those of us who had. It is certainly not necessary in writing history "to have been there," but as we learn from Thucydides, it helps. John Wheeler-Bennett, the eminent British historian and well known for his fine books on Germany, thought there was no substitute for firsthand experience, of which he had had a great deal in Berlin.
Also, I was troubled by the practice of Allen and other young academic historians of drawing historical conclusions from their detailed studies of a tiny part of the picture. It reminded me of a weekend meeting at Harvard, some years before, of historians from Germany, France, Britain, and the United States to discuss the history of Nazi Germany. I was invited to participate and was, I believe, the only nonacademic present. Many who came discussed their own detailed studies of towns, a single city block, of the party or the press in a province. Almost all of the talk had an air of unreality about it. There was no attempt to assess the whole picture or to delve into fundamental questions such as why it was, and how, that the citizens of an ancient, cultured, cultivated Christian land allowed their great country to be demeaned and destroyed by the Nazi barbarians-and with enthusiasm. I, who had seen it happen, had never been able to fully explain it, but I thought all historians should make the attempt. But these young academics, some of them already of great repute, but all too young to have known Nazi Germany at first hand as adults, kept dodging important questions. They were more interested in their data on how, for example, Germans in one city block in Cologne voted in the years that led up to Hitler's triumph.
The last day of the seminar, one of those attending, an elderly man, came up to me in frustration and exasperation. He had been a refugee from Nazi Germany and for many years a distinguished professor of history at the University of Paris. I knew him by reputation, and the day before he had said he admired my own works on Germany.
"This is all so unreal," he whispered to me. "Let's ask the chair if we can interrupt the program for a few minutes and tell some of these young historians what it was like to live in Nazi Germany and just what happened to bring such a calamity on the German people. We can tell them how the people really behaved, which is quite different from what the dry data tells them."
He got the attention of the chair, apologized for breaking into the agenda, and explained that much of the talk over the weekend had seemed to him to be so lacking in reality-as sometimes happened to scholars who worked only from arid documents-that the conference might be interested in hearing from two historians who had lived through at first hand the Nazi nightmare. He mentioned himself and me.
The presiding academic historian listened patiently, a little bemused, I thought, and said: "Thank you very much," and promptly, without batting an eye, called on the next speaker on the agenda.
CHAPTER 6
More and more, as I grew older, my diaries, when I summed up the year past or on the occasion of another birthday, speculated about how many years I might have left and what I intended to do with them. Thus an entry for January 19, 1982, after reviewing 1981, peered into the new year.
…I'll be 78 this coming Feb. 23. I feel lucky to be alive and in good health and writing well, my days filled to the limit with work, exercise, reading, listening to music, seeing friends. Life in many ways may be a swindle, terribly unfair to many who are poor or unemployed or rejected. But it has been good to me and interesting, and I wouldn't mind having a little more of it, tho I have to face the fact that at 78 my days are decidedly numbered.
I'd like to finish my memoirs-another 3 or 4 years work. And love deeply a woman again and be loved, and read more and really study Russian and sail and garden and see my children and their mother, estranged though Tess and I are, and my grandchildren and friends. Am I too greedy for life? Too selfish?
I recalled reading something from Virginia Woolf-I think in her diaries toward the end of her life-that she realized finally she would never learn Russian as she had once hoped to do. There was an air of sadness in her words, for she had had a passion for Russian literature, in which she had read widely in English translation, and she wanted very much to read it again in the original, realizing how much was lost in translation.
I had had the same ambition, had begun to study it as I approached seventy, and then my teacher had returned to Europe, and I had not found another and had given it up. Then in 1982, when I was seventy-eight, I again found a tutor, a Russian woman teaching the language in a nearby college, and I resumed my studies. This also had rekindled a fire under a related and long-held ambition: to go to Russia. For fifty years I had been trying to get into that country and the Bolsheviks had always turned me down.
In Kabul back in 1930, I thought I had made it when the Soviet ambassador invited me to stop over in Russia on my way back to my post in Vienna. But the Foreign Office in Moscow had rebuked him for issuing any such invitation to a correspondent of the Chicago Tribune, which had been lambasting the Bolsheviks since the advent of Lenin and Trotsky, and the trip was off. I thought finally I would get there twenty-one years later, in 1953, when the Soviet embassy in Washington advised me I could pick up my visa in Helsinki. But when I arrived at the embassy in the Finnish capital, they informed me that Josef Stalin had died, that the border was closed, and that no visas could be issued for the moment. Two or three times subsequently my attempts to get a visa failed.
I could not understand why. I had never written much about the Soviet Union because I had never been there. I knew that the Kremlin had not liked what I wrote about the Nazi-Soviet Pact and had only permitted the publication of my two books, which assailed Stalin for having signed it, Berlin Diary and The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, after that had been cut out (without my permission or prior knowledge). But I was not a professional Bolshevik-hater. I had hailed the courageous fight of the Russians against the German invaders during the Second World War. I had written of my love for Russian literature and my fascination with the language. Still, over all the years, no visa. No explanation. Nichevo!
Then one day in 1982, Marge Champion, the dancer, a dear friend and neighbor in the Berkshires, phoned that a member of a group she was going to the Soviet Union with, the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers, had fallen ill and that I could take his place. The visa, one of thirty issued to the group, could simply be stapled to my passport.
"Can you act like a dancer?" Marge teased me. "Most of us in the group are dancers."
"Sure," I said. "Look at all the great dancers I've known. Isadora Duncan, Mary Wigman, Tilly Losch, you. It will be easy."
For a decrepit old man not long recovered from heart surgery it was ludicrous, of course, to assume any such pose. Though I was certainly not known in Russia, the KGB surely had a dossier on me if only because of my books. But the worst that could happen to me, if I were found out, I figured, would be to be thrown out.
I told Marge I would go. After waiting for half a century, I was determined to get into Russia under any pretense.
Harrison Salisbury, also an old friend and neighbor in the Berkshires and a former Times correspondent in Moscow who had just returned from shepherding a group of American writers through the Soviet Union, was not so sure I should take the chance. The authorities in Moscow, he said, had been in a vile mood about Americans. They were still resentful of President Reagan's crack about "the evil empire" and of all the other attacks by the Reagan administration.
"If they think you have tried to put something over on them," he added, "they might throw you out."
But I was determined.
***
Actually it took the KGB in Moscow two days to find out who I was. But from the very first moment we landed at Sheremetyevo Airport, I established a certain contact with the famed secret police. When I walked through the metal detector, all the bells of Moscow seemed to ring out. A suspicious official ordered me to empty my pockets and try again. The bells continued to ring. Finally after half a dozen attempts he called a superior, who turned out to be almost a picture-book specimen of what I imagined a KGB operative to be. Very suave. Almost genial. Obviously competent.
"What's the problem?" he asked, in almost perfect American.
By this time I realized that the probable cause of my setting off the alarm was that I still carried a number of metal clasps that had been inserted after heart surgery to hold the chest area together. I had had this problem at airports at home. I explained this to the KGB officer, who seemed skeptical.
"Try again," he ordered.
Same result. Again and again and again. Finally in frustration he shook his head and said, "Very strange. Quite unusual. But okay. I accept your explanation. You can go pick up your luggage." That, too, had just had a narrow escape of its own.
While he was inspecting me, I had looked over his shoulder to see a very interesting sight. A Russian friend at home had asked me to take some things to her mother in Moscow, and one of the items had been an old-fashioned Flit-pump to spray cockroaches, which invade many, if not all, Moscow apartments. As my suitcase passed through the detector, its contents were shown on a TV screen, and the Flit-pump looked exactly like a good-sized bomb. However, the Russian inspector checking the screen was looking the other way, and my KGB friend was looking at me, his back to the screen, and the clear outline of what looked like a deadly bomb faded from the screen and I was again home safe. And my friend's Moscow mother was assured of a tool to wage her war against the cockroaches.
On the late afternoon of our second day in Moscow, our Intourist guide took me aside as we arrived back at the hotel and said she had to speak to me alone. She was so attractive a woman and so intelligent that I had assumed from the first that she was not only an Intourist guide but, as many of them were said to be, a member in good standing of the KGB. In my years in Nazi Germany, I had developed a pretty good sense for detecting agents of the secret police, especially women.
So I had been identified, I thought. And probably the woman was about to tell me to get ready to catch the first plane out of the Soviet Union. Everyone in our group had been so taken with her that we already were first-naming her, as Americans like to do.
"Sonia," I said (I am not giving her real name), "may I suggest that we go to the bar and that you give me the pleasure of buying you a drink." Over drinks in the bar, I thought, we would at least be civilized. She readily assented.
After a little small-talk at the bar, she turned to me and said, "Why did you do this to us? We are not dumb, you know. We know perfectly well who you are."
"Well, Sonia," I said, "it's an honor to be recognized in the Soviet Union." She really had a beautiful, intelligent, sensitive face and was an enormously attractive person. She certainly didn't seem grim, and I began to hope.
"Are you a member of this society of dancers?" she asked.
"No." And I explained why I had come with the group and how for years the Soviet government, for reasons I could not comprehend, had denied me a visa.
"Did you come over to write about us?"
"No. I came over to see what I could of a country and a people that has always fascinated me and whose language I'm trying to learn."
"I suspect you speak more Russian than you have shown me," she said. Why were Russians so suspicious? I wondered. Sonia would entertain that suspicion to the end.
"No, I really can't speak it yet," I said. "I'm learning it mostly to read. So I can read Pushkin and Tolstoy and Dostoyevski and all the rest, including your Soviet writers, in the original."
"Good luck!" she said and broke into a broad smile. I felt better now about the verdict. Sonia certainly didn't look as if she were going to tell me to pack my bags. She sipped her sherry, took a long and somewhat quizzical look at me, broke into another smile, and said: "What can we do for you? Since you're a writer, you probably would like to see some things on your own."
"Sonia," I said, when I had recovered my breath, "I thank you very much. I really appreciate it." I paused for more breath. I was still savoring the pleasant surprise. "There is something I would like very much to see. I've been trying for years to write a play about Tolstoy."
"You have? That interests me very much."
"And since it is laid mostly in his country place, where he spent most of his life, I would very much like to go down to Yasnaya Polyana." It was one hundred and thirty-five miles south of Moscow.
"I'll try to arrange it," she said.
"Sonia, I love you," I said. "You're wonderful!"
***
Alas, the next day I came down with the flu; my temperature soared to 102°, and the hotel doctor ordered me to bed. On the following day Sonia came by to see how I was.
"It's all arranged," she said. "I've got you a car, a driver, and, since you claim you don't speak Russian, an interpreter. You start at six o'clock tomorrow morning."
I thanked her profusely. But the doctor, when she came in later, would not allow it. Did I realize, she asked, that in Russian cars the heater almost never worked? It was the end of October. Winter was setting in. It had already begun to snow. It was getting colder. It would take eight hours to drive to Yasnaya Polyana and back on the clogged Tula road. I would freeze to death. Or, at the very least, catch pneumonia and die that way. No. Nyet! Nelzya!
It was a bitter disappointment. But I recovered quickly enough to meander around Moscow toward the end of the week and then for another whole week in Leningrad. In Moscow there was a subway station in front of the Hotel Kosmos, and I would take a subway train there, ride a few stations, get off, and wander around the district, ask my way back to the station (to try out my extremely limited Russian), embark on another line, get off again, and look over a new area. One day I found myself at a station unable to figure out what line to take to get to Red Square, where I had an appointment with a friend for lunch at the nearby Hotel National. I paused to ask directions from two young men who were passing by. They listened patiently for a moment to my attempts at Russian and then broke out in an almost unaccented American. They turned out to be a couple of young instructors at the University of Moscow. They got off with me at a stop on Gorky Street, and as I was early for my luncheon appointment, we had a long talk as we circled around Red Square. I began to get a feel, however slight, for what the Russian people were thinking.
In Leningrad, I met a professor from the university in a still more curious way. I had gone with my group to some institute to hear some Russians speak about their peace movement. But the speeches were so long and so boring, what with the translations, and so full of propaganda baloney, that I was looking for a way out when a young Russian secretary tapped my shoulder and whispered that a professor from the university was outside in the reception hall and wanted to see me.
"She says she has read all your books," the secretary whispered.
"Most unlikely," I said.
However, I was glad of the opportunity to escape, and I followed the young lady out to the reception hall. There waited a middle-aged woman who said she was a professor of history at the University of Leningrad. She spoke very good English.
"I've read all your books," she said eagerly.
"Well, you honor me, madame. But how is that possible? None of them, so far as I know, except for Berlin Diary and The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, have been published in the Soviet Union, and then only in a very limited way."
"We have the American editions of all of them in our library," she said rather triumphantly, "and I've read them all," whereupon she proceeded to run through the titles of each, a few of which I myself had almost forgotten. "They are required reading in my classes," she claimed.
She was genial enough and warm and friendly. But I found myself watching my words as we launched into a long discussion of what I had written about Nazi Germany. I kept wondering how this woman professor knew that I was at this particular meeting or, for that matter, in Leningrad or even in Russia. Who had tipped her off? The KGB in Moscow? Sonia, who was supposed to terminate her guiding of us when we left the capital but who had come on to Leningrad with us? Obviously this woman was in good standing with the powers-that-be.
So though I was wary, I learned a good deal from her, I think, and from a colleague of hers on the faculty of the university to whom she introduced me and who, I gathered, was also in the good graces of the party.
***
This late autumn of 1982 marked the end of the long Brezhnev era-he would die on November 10 in Moscow, four days after we departed the Soviet Union. Short as my stay in the country had been, it was long enough to see that he had almost ruined it and that the system itself was failing. The Soviet Union was mired in a terrible stagnation and had been for years. Nothing much worked except the space program and the arming of the military. The vast country-by far the largest in the world-could not even properly feed its people nor house them nor provide them with hardly any of the amenities that were commonplace in the West. And the situation was getting worse, the lines before the shops longer. Russia was falling rapidly behind the West in almost every way.
And the people, it was clear, knew all these things. They had lost hope of an improvement in their lives under this system. They had nothing but contempt for the Communist party and its leaders, who were running the country into the ground, the bigwigs leading lives of luxury, complacency, and corruption and, in turn, contemptuous of the common people, who were barely able to survive. The so-called dictatorship of the proletariat was a joke to most Russians. The workers, deprived of independent free-trade unions and the right to strike, not only did not run the country-or have any say in its running-they lacked the freedoms of the workers in the West, with their really independent free-trade unions and the right to strike.
All these failures were a revelation to me. If the American press had reported them, I had missed it, though I read a number of newspapers and magazines. It had all come out in bits and pieces from talks with a few Russians themselves and from the feel you got as you mingled with the throngs on Gorky Street or on the Nevsky Prospect and watched the long lines before the shops and went into them to see the shabby goods, the scrawny scraps of meat and decaying vegetables, and the barren shelves.
The intellectuals I met, except for those who had sold out-and even some of them-were chafing at the lack of freedom of writers and artists and journalists and teachers. The line laid down for them by the party bureaucrats seemed to them inane. And stifling. They were no longer in fear of their lives as they had been under Stalin. But dissidents were still being arrested, given mock trials, and sent off to Siberia. Andrei Sakharov himself was under virtual house arrest and confined to the city of Gorki, where he was subjected to indignities and humiliations by the KGB.
Brezhnev, who had let the country slide down into such a morass, was about finished. His health was failing. I caught him on TV the night before we left Moscow for Leningrad at the end of October. He was presiding over a meeting with his military chiefs, one of the preliminaries to celebrating on November 7 the sixty-fifth anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. You could tell he was a dying man. He had to be half-carried to the rostrum by a couple of generals. His speech was badly slurred. He could hardly read the words.
Who would replace him? Nobody you spoke to seemed to care. His successor would be, they knew, another ailing, aging party boss. The Bolshevik Old Guard was clinging to power no matter what happened to the country. This was shown-not once but twice. First there was Yuri Andropov, the former head of the KGB, and then Konstantine Chernenko, a handsome, fumbling, elderly party regular. The first because he was too ill, the second because he was too old and mediocre, did little to stem the decline. Both died shortly after attaining office.
When I returned to Russia four years later, in 1986, there was a new kind of man at the top in the Kremlin, and he was filling the people with a hope that at last something would really be done to drag the country out of its stagnation, reduce tensions with the West, join the U.S.A. in reducing nuclear arms, provide the citizens with adequate food and decent housing, cut down the long lines before the shops, open up the whole moribund society and give the people some of the freedoms they had been deprived of. He even talked about introducing some democracy in the monolithic party and in the country, though it certainly would be limited. No Russian believed the Kremlin was about to relinquish its iron control.
***
On the second visit I was on my own. A Russian friend would be meeting me in Moscow, helping me with the language, guiding me about and taking me into Russian homes. She was now an American citizen living and working in the States, but she had visited her ailing mother in Moscow nearly every summer for years and was enormously interested in the goings-on in her native land.
Once again the Soviet embassy in Washington had not even acknowledged my request for a visa, but I had obtained one through a travel bureau in New York. Thanks to its Moscow connections it had also persuaded Intourist to renew its offer to take me down to Yasnaya Polyana to visit Tolstoy's estate. Though I was anxious to see how the Soviet Union had changed in the four years since I was last there, especially the last year under an amazing new leader, one of the main purposes of my journey this time was to do background research in Moscow and Yasnaya Polyana for a play and possibly a book on Tolstoy.
The new man in charge in the Soviet Union was Mikhail Gorbachev, and my Russian friend could scarcely believe how much Russia had changed even in the short interval since he took over. A good deal of her excitement rubbed off on me. That summer of 1986, despite one of the worst heat spells in living memory, despite the worst disaster ever to hit an atomic generating plant-the one at Chernobyl two or three weeks before I arrived-was a heady time to be in Moscow. You could feel the winds of change beginning to sweep over the country. My Russian friend was amazed that her friends and acquaintances and relatives were suddenly speaking out in the open about things they had not dared to mention two or three years before. Glasnost-openness-so long suppressed in the country, was now publicly proclaimed by Gorbachev as one of the first immediate goals. Books that had long been banned began to appear. Plays that it had been verboten to produce suddenly popped up in some of Moscow's theaters. The dreary, controlled press that for so long had been confined to boasting of the party's progress and its good works was more lively, opening for the first time its columns to contradictory views.
Readers now dared to write in, and the newspapers-even Pravda and Isvestia-dared to print their criticism of what had long gone wrong in the Soviet Union: the shortage of food and its terrible quality, the lack of decent housing, the lines at the shops with their shoddy goods, the suppression of books and plays, the restraints on free speech and free assembly.
Even the wooden prime-time evening news show on Soviet television, Vremya, which had bored Russians to death, began to loosen up and present some actual news.
The Russians we saw were excited about the change and, on the whole, approving. But they were also skeptical. After nearly a year and a half of perestroika there had been no noticeable improvement in the food supply or its quality. The lines before the shops still stretched out far down the street. A new apartment was almost impossible to find. Whole families were still crowded in one room. The great apartment complexes on the outskirts of the capital were beginning to decay, though many were only three or four years old. Prices were going up, though salaries and wages remained unchanged.
Above all, I think, Russians feared that Gorbachev might not survive for long. Khrushchev had tried to introduce some drastic reforms, they said, and had been overthrown by the Old Guard in the Kremlin. It was still strong, and the immense party bureaucracy was probably out to get Gorbachev and return to the old corrupt, stagnant ways. The mass of the Russian people, it was said, were inherently conservative, fearing change and hating it if it came too fast and was too drastic. A tumultuous history had taught them to value stability. It had also taught them to be wary of leaders who promised better times.
Many, also, were still afraid. Afraid that if they spoke out too frankly, too publicly, now, it would be held against them if a new repressive regime gained control of the Kremlin. In that case they might again end up in a Gulag for something they said or wrote.
They were also fearful that their security might be threatened. Though their standard of living had been miserable compared to the West, at least their lives had been secure. They were guaranteed a job. There was no unemployment in Russia as there was in the West. Health care was free, and education. Many of the necessities of life were subsidized by the government and cost them little. Bread, the staple of their diet, was cheap because it was heavily subsidized. Rents were much lower than in the West. Transportation was almost free. A ride on the excellent Moscow subway cost four cents. If you went by bus, it was a cent cheaper.
Now Gorbachev was telling the people that in order to pull the economic machine out of the quagmire and improve the standard of living, certain drastic measures that would temporarily make things seem worse had to be taken. Subsidies would have to be reduced and even, in some cases, eliminated. Giant state monopolies would have to be decentralized so as to allow competition between the various parts and also from more private enterprise. Government-run industries that were operated at a loss, as so many were, would have to be reorganized or eliminated unless they could bring a profit to the state. To produce more food, which was the country's most pressing need, competition to the badly run state farms and farm collectives would be introduced by giving the peasants more land to till on their own.
The introduction of some form of competition in many parts of the Soviet economy, which would provide the incentives to produce more and distribute it better, seemed to be one of the most important foundations of Gorbachev's proposed reforms. Drastic improvement in transportation and marketing, he said, was absolutely necessary. Apparently the railroads, good as they were in comparison with the appalling state of them in the U.S.A., could not solve all of the problem. The Soviet Union needed good roads for its increasing truck traffic. One could understand why Russia, going back to the time of the czars and continuing through the Bolshevik era, had deliberately neglected building good roads. It was because they feared invasion. Bad roads, which in Russia are almost impassable in the autumn and spring "muddy" seasons, not to mention when the heavy winter snows come, helped hold back the invader, as happened to Napoleon and the Nazi Germans when they advanced into Russia, only to be hampered and slowed by the miserable roads as autumn and then winter came.
For lack of adequate transportation and marketing facilities, some twenty percent of the fruit and vegetables in the country, I was told, was spoiled before reaching the consumer. The Crimea and the Caucasus, especially, raised great quantities of fruit and vegetables but there was no way the authorities could find to get them all to the vast markets of the great cities of the north-at least while they were fresh. Refrigerated railway cars and automotive trucks seemed to be unknown in the Soviet Union.
Fundamental reforms in the economy and in agriculture, Gorbachev warned the people, would bring higher prices-and faster at first than wages and salaries could be raised. This did not go down well with the populace. They wondered how they could make both ends meet. It had been hard enough to do it before.
While most Russians we met were excited and happy about the new cultural freedoms, I could understand their wariness. They could scarcely believe their eyes when they read in the press articles that attacked Stalin for his brutality and regime of terror and others that blamed Brezhnev for the glaring failures of the economy. They were astounded when the Kremlin began to rehabilitate most of the old Bolsheviks, Bukharin, for example, whom Stalin had shot after mock trials. All this was heady stuff, as were new plays and books that castigated Stalin and criticized a good deal that had happened since his death. But, as I learned by personal experience, there were limits to glasnost.
When my Russian friend telephoned old friends of hers in Moscow asking if she could drop in on them with me, an American, some of them hesitated to say yes. They were frankly afraid that my presence might get them into trouble with the party spy at their apartment house, who would report to higher party officials. One hesitant family assented only after we promised not to speak a word of English when we entered the building. The old woman who had the first room on the left beyond the entrance, we were warned, was the Communist stooge for the apartment house, who checked on everyone entering. She had not yet heard, my hosts joked after we were safely in their fourth-floor apartment, of Gorbachev's glasnost.
Neither, it was obvious, had a lot of higher-ups. Jews, who had waited for years to emigrate, were still being denied permission to leave. If they protested too loudly and especially to a foreigner and more especially to an American, they might well find themselves in trouble.
One very hot day we were invited to lunch by an eminent Jewish physician. His wife, who was not Jewish, had been a brilliant young scientist whose career was cut short by the authorities when she married him. I had had no idea that official anti-Semitism applied to such persons. Seven years before they had asked for permission to emigrate to Australia. Because of their eminence in their respective fields, they had been assured there would be no difficulty. As a result, they had shipped their furniture and their library to Australia, expecting that they would arrive by air before their goods did. But year after year their exit visas had been held up.
The afternoon we sat down to lunch with them they were desperate. They felt they had been humiliated long enough. Even the way we arrived had been a small humiliation, the doctor said. In the first place, our rendezvous had been arranged only after he and we had resorted to pay telephones in Moscow's side streets. I never telephoned from my room in the hotel, and he was careful about whom he phoned from his home or office. He insisted on fetching us for lunch. But he warned it would not be advisable to drive up to the hotel, swarming with agents of the KGB-not advisable for him or for us. So he arranged to pick us up on a small side street several blocks from the hotel.
We had much good talk at their table, for they were a very civilized couple. But as the meal wore on, they appeared to me to grow more and more nervous. And bitter. Finally, the doctor told us why.
At 5:00 P.M., he said, he and his wife and their three young children were going to join another family, which was in a similar fix, and go out in the street and stage a miniature demonstration. They had painted placards telling of their plight. They had also called a French TV correspondent, who had said he would arrive with a cameraman to film them.
"I don't have much hope this will move the authorities," the doctor said. "But we're desperate. They won't let my wife work at her profession. And I can't stand it any longer to be persecuted for my race."
He drove us back to a small street some distance from the hotel and we wished him well. We said we would call him later from a pay phone down the street to see how they made out.
When we phoned around 10:00 P.M., the doctor's telephone line had been cut. We thought of taking a taxi to their home but realized it might further endanger them. How my Russian friend soon found out what had happened to them she declined to tell me. She would only say, jokingly, that in Russia there was a vast underground grapevine by which people learned a great deal of what was going on. Anyway, within a couple of days, my friend found out that the militia had broken up the little demonstration of the two families, but not until the French TV had photographed it. The doctor was arrested and sentenced to two weeks in jail "for blocking the traffic." His wife and the children were put under house arrest. This prevented us from visiting her before we left.
We did not write them for fear of making their situation even worse. It would not have been helpful to them if they were found having further contacts with an American. But somehow my Russian friend found out that eventually there was a happy ending to their story after all. Gorbachev's more tolerant policy had an effect. Two years later the family was allowed to emigrate to Australia.
***
I had come, as I have noted, to Russia this time not only to see how things had begun to change under Gorbachev but also to do some background work for a play about Tolstoy. Above all, I wanted to get the feel for the two homes he had spent his life in, his house in Moscow and, more important, his country place at Yasnaya Polyana, an old family estate on which he passed most of his years, particularly the great creative ones during which he wrote his two masterpieces, War and Peace and Anna Karenina. The scenes of any play about him, or of any book, for that matter, would be laid mostly there. It was important to visit the Tolstoy home in the capital not only for its intrinsic interest but also because the Tolstoy Museum was located there, and I hoped to find some material that had been unavailable in the Russian bookstores. A new book about Tolstoy in Moscow had just been acclaimed by the Soviet reviewers, but I had tried in vain to find a copy of it in the bookshops. I thought perhaps I would find it at the Tolstoy Museum. Maybe the curator would have a spare copy.
But when we arrived one morning at the Tolstoy house, a guide informed us that the curator would not be in that day. Before we left, several hours later, I had found out that doing research in the Soviet Union was interesting in ways one had not anticipated.
The guide, it seemed to us, began to offer a very perfunctory tour of the old house as if she were most anxious to get rid of us as soon as possible-she had expressed surprise that a foreigner could be interested in Tolstoy. By the time we climbed to the second floor and entered the spacious living room with its grand piano in one corner and a long table in another, my Russian friend, whom we might as well start calling Tania, which is not her name, became so exasperated that she turned on the guide and burst out in a torrent of words spoken so rapidly and so emotionally that I could scarcely catch a word. But I got the gist. Here, she was saying, albeit with some exaggeration, was a distinguished American writer, a student of Tolstoy, who had come a long way to visit this house and museum and who deserved better than this insultingly perfunctory tour the guide was giving us. Mr. Shirer, she said, loved Russia, loved Tolstoy, had come here to learn more about the Master, but he was certainly not learning anything from her.
I must say the woman, in her middle fifties, I guessed, who had mentioned that she was a former actress, seemed shocked by Tania's outburst. She started to apologize.
"I'm very sorry," she said. "I mistook you for the kind of tourists we get here every day, who don't give a damn really about Tolstoy. I heard you speaking a foreign language-German is it?-and I thought you probably cared even less than our Russian tourists."
The good lady, who had been so haughty, became very humble.
"We will start all over," she said, and led us back downstairs. She was now quite a different person. Someone had stuffed a lot of knowledge of Tolstoy in this house into her. It was several hours before we finished. In fact, almost the entire day had passed; it was closing time. And I had learned a great deal.
***
Most reluctantly in 1881 Tolstoy with his family had moved for the winter from his country place at Yasnaya Polyana, which he loved, to Moscow, which he hated. He had not always felt that way about it. In his mid-twenties he had sowed his wild oats there, gambling, drinking, and patronizing the city's many brothels. But now he was fifty-three, with a wife and several children. With his flowing beard turning white, he had begun to look like an old patriarch. He was also, after writing War and Peace and Anna Karenina, the most famous writer in Russia and perhaps in the world. And since he turned fifty he had been undergoing a conversion that he hoped would transform his life. It was a grave middle-age crisis. He was seeking to find himself as a Christian. He believed he must give up the good life of the rich and privileged aristocracy and live like a peasant, and if possible like a saint. And that his wife and children should try to follow him.
But Countess Tolstoy was not interested. She had eight children who had been growing up in the isolated countryside without formal education except that provided by none-too-bright tutors. It was time for the family, she urged her husband, to return at least for the winter to Moscow, where she had grown up, and put the children in regular schools. The eldest son, Sergei, was eighteen and ready for the university. After much argument between the spouses, Tolstoy grudgingly agreed. But he professed to hate almost every minute of it. On October 5, 1881, only a month after arriving, he jotted down in his diary: "Moscow. A month gone by, the hardest month of my life."
Old friends were puzzled. Here was a man acclaimed worldwide as a great novelist, an original thinker. He was a wealthy aristocrat with two or three great estates. He was blessed with an attractive and intelligent wife and eight fine children. What more could he want out of life? Such a man had to be happy. But here he was proclaiming his misery, his discontent with himself, his life, his family. And though outsiders might not suspect it, the great man and his formidable wife had fallen into a rut of horrendous quarreling that would plague them all the rest of their days.
After spending the first winter in a large house that Sophia Tolstoy had rented and her husband detested, he had found a place he liked and the next year bought: a wooden house of sixteen rooms with a large garden, located in a factory district that included a distillery, a stocking manufacturer, a brewery, and a spinning mill. Tolstoy was pleased that he could live among the workers, even though in style-he had brought along twelve servants from the country.
It was in this house that Tania and I found ourselves the summer of 1986, a century later, as I continued my search for the true Tolstoy. For the next nineteen years the Tolstoy family would spend a good part of the winters here. In it, after he had settled down, he would turn out some one hundred works, including Confession, The Kreuzer Sonata, The Death of Ivan Illych, and his famous Response to the Synod's Edict of Excommunication-after the Orthodox Church in 1961 had thrown out this passionate but unorthodox Christian.
The study in which he turned out these great works was of special interest to me. It was not a large room, but it had space enough for a large desk and several chairs covered in black leather-rather ugly, I thought, but comfortable and probably appreciated by Tolstoy's literary friends who sometimes gathered there. The chair in which he sat at the desk seemed very short, and the guide explained that Tolstoy himself had sawed off several inches of the legs so that his chin was only a few inches above the table level when he worked. He was short-sighted but hated to wear glasses. Out of vanity? I wondered. Obviously when he was writing, he was alone and no one could notice how he looked in glasses. When the guests arrived, he could have taken them off.
When we returned to the big living room on the second floor, the guide was more forthcoming. It was a spacious room with the walls painted white and three large windows looking out on the garden. It was sparsely, rather than elegantly, furnished. A long table in one corner was set for a meal for fourteen, its white tablecloth, white china, and a large candelabrum laid out exactly as in Tolstoy's time, though I had noticed a large dining room downstairs. There were no pictures on the walls, only two large mirrors. At the opposite end of the room was a small round table in a corner, the rest of the space being taken by a grand piano. Tolstoy himself and his wife were fair pianists. They often played duets together, and he himself loved to have a go at Chopin and Beethoven. And it was here that Russia's great composers and musicians came to play: Tchaikovsky, Rimski-Korsakov, Rubinstein, Rachmaninoff, and Scriabin. On a memorable evening a young Chaliapin, accompanied at the piano by Rachmaninoff, sang arias from several operas.
There were also literary evenings in this room when writers gathered to discuss each other's works or read from their latest pieces. The guide mentioned Gorky, Korolenko, Leskov, among others. But the names of two other great writers, Tolstoy's rivals, Turgenev and Dostoyevski, were missing. Turgenev, whom a young Tolstoy had once challenged to a duel though they were later reconciled, visited Tolstoy at Yasnaya Polyana, which was near his own estate, but apparently never in Moscow.
Strangely enough, the two literary giants of that time, Tolstoy and Dostoyevski, never met. Each seemed to be wary of the other. Tolstoy could not stand much of what Dostoyevski wrote. Perhaps he did not try very hard. At the end, though, when he learned of Dostoyevski's death in 1881, he was deeply moved.
I never saw the man [he wrote to his publisher] and never had any direct relations with him, and suddenly when he died, I realized that he was the very closest, dearest and most necessary man for me.…I was overcome: but then it became clear how precious he was to me, and I cried and am still crying.
Though Countess Tolstoy was glad to be back in her native Moscow after twenty years of life in the country, pleased that she could put the children in school and exhilarated at renewing her old social life, entertaining, going out to gala balls, attending concerts, she was far from happy with her distinguished husband. She, like him, kept a diary, but there are only three entries for 1882, the year they moved into the new house. In the first, for February 28, she writes: "Our life in Moscow would be quite delightful if only it did not make Lyovochka so unhappy." Then on August 26:
It was twenty years ago, when I was young and happy, that I started writing the story of my love for Lyovochka in this book. Twenty years later, here I am sitting up all night on my own, reading and mourning its loss. For the first time in our life Lyovochka has run off to sleep alone in the study. We were quarreling about such silly things.…Today he shouted at the top of his voice that his dearest wish was to leave his family. I shall carry the memory of that heartfelt, heartrending cry of his to my grave.
In a sense she did. From that time on, though this quarrel, like so many others, would end in their tearful making up, the threat of his leaving, often imagined by her as it was, would haunt her-until it became a terrifying reality twenty-eight years later.
***
"I'm sorry your curator is not here today," I said to the guide at the end of the day as we went downstairs to the vestibule. "I was looking forward to talking to her. And perhaps to get some material."
"Oh, she's here," said the guide with the straightest of faces. "I will take you to her. I'm sure she would like to meet a writer from America. I do not believe we have had any before."
And off she went to find the curator, whom she had told us earlier was not there and would not be there that day. We had a fine talk with this lady. She had a good deal of material she was more than willing to provide me. Monographs by various Russian authors on Tolstoy. And booklets. I started to ask her if there were any way I could get the new book, Tolstoy in Moscow. It had, among other things, I was told, some wonderful pictures of each room in the Tolstoy house. It had dozens of photographs of paintings of the old Moscow of the mid-nineteenth century.
Before I could finish the sentence she got up, disappeared into what appeared to be a storeroom, and returned with a small truck with three big cartons.
"I was given 150 copies of the new Tolstoy in Moscow book," she said. "I was told by the party people to have plenty in stock for the delegates to the Twentieth Party Congress that ended here a few days ago. Would you believe it, not a single party delegate visited us? They were not much interested in Tolstoy, it appears. I believe they were more interested in shopping. So I have all these books. How many do you want?"
"I'll take half a dozen," I said. An American who taught Russian and Russian studies at one of our universities had begged me to try to get a copy for her. She had been in Moscow a few weeks before while on a sabbatical but had been unable to find it in any bookstore. I knew other teachers at home who would want a copy.
The good curator went out again and returned with an empty box, which we filled with the six books and other material she gave me. She talked as if I had made her day. She had certainly made mine.
***
Finally the morning came when I could fulfill an old dream: set out on the road to Yasnaya Polyana. Tania and I met the Intourist guide at 7:00 A.M. in front of the hotel. She and two or three men, whom I took to be KGB, were talking rather loudly with the driver of our car. He must not under any circumstances take this American into Tula, which one passed just before reaching Yasnaya Polyana. I already had been told by someone that Tula, a city of a million people and the center of the arms industry in Russia, was off limits to foreigners. That was why they could not allow me to stay overnight in a hotel there, as I had first requested. It made no difference to me. I was not interested in seeing the Soviet Union's armament manufacturing center. When they had finished with the driver, the guide, a rather prissy lady, I thought, in her early forties, turned to me and said in English: "You understand? We are not to go into Tula. You cannot stay overnight there after visiting Yasnaya Polyana. We must return to Moscow!"
"I understand," I said. "Ya panimayu."
"The driver has strict orders."
"It's fine with me," I said.
She and her colleagues looked at me rather suspiciously. This surprised me, for I was sure the whole trip with Tania had been cleared with the proper authorities. They knew who I was. And I didn't think I looked like a spy.
But then I aroused their suspicion anew. It was innocent enough. I turned to the Intourist guide and said that if she didn't want to make the long, tiring drive to Yasnaya Polyana and back, it was all right with me, since my friend spoke Russian and could be my interpreter.
The lady was outraged.
"I am your interpreter for today," she said sharply. "And your guide until we get to Yasnaya Polyana. There we will have a special guide."
Why she thought I needed an interpreter and guide to sit in a bouncing car for eight hours on the bumpy, dusty Tula road choked with fumes from bumper-to-bumper giant trucks that spewed exhaust smoke like little Mt. Vesuviuses (I had first observed the phenomenon when we met the Red Army in Berlin in 1945) was a naïve question I did not pose. We all understood that she was going along to keep track of us and report back to Intourist and probably to the KGB, though it seemed silly that the secret police could be interested in Tania and me. At any rate, we were stuck with her, and, after all, I realized she was just doing her job and trying to earn her living.
She turned to the others and apparently repeated in Russian what I said. They thought it was funny. They sort of chuckled. Tania and I climbed into the back seat, and our guide primly and sternly took her place next to the driver in the front seat and we were off.
Friends who had tried to make the trip without supervision had told me how they were stopped repeatedly at checkpoints every few miles by the militia. A friend from home who had made the journey a few weeks before with her husband had been halted at one checkpoint after another and finally at the last one, a few miles from Tula, told that she could not go on. Only by staging a hysterical scene had the militia finally relented and let her through. But now as we sped south, we whizzed by one checkpoint after another without even slowing down. Occasionally a guard acknowledged us with a sloppy salute.
"There must be some special sign on our car," Tania whispered to me. "Otherwise, why should they let us through? They've never done that with me before."
Later Tania concluded that there must have been a special KGB insignia on the license plate.
As we neared Tula nearly four hours later, the driver, a healthy peasant type but not too bright, slowed down to read the road signs. I saw plainly a large one that pointed to the left and said in large letters TULA. He hesitated a moment and then turned left onto what turned out to be the road into the great armaments center that was supposed to be off limits to the likes of me.
Soon we were hopelessly lost in the big city. The driver would stop to ask a worker the road to Yasnaya Polyana. None knew. Tolstoy's place, after all, was a tiny village. So we drove about for an hour, in the course of which I am sure I saw every damned armament works in Tula. They all seemed to be humming. But for all I knew, that was to be expected. Probably their counterparts at home were also going full blast, though I hadn't the slightest idea where the arms manufacturing center was in America, assuming we had one.
Our effort to get out of Tula seemed unending. We were losing valuable time. But finally we made it and drove on the five or six miles to Yasnaya Polyana. There was a café-restaurant opposite the gate to the estate, and we stopped there for a bite to eat. Our guide, obviously battered by the rugged ride, frustrated by the delay in Tula, and probably wondering darkly how she was going to explain to her superiors that she had taken this American writer into the forbidden city, sat down beside me at the table when Tania went off to the ladies' room. Tired as she was, our guide looked suspicious. I wondered what it was now.
"Your friend," she said. "How come she speaks such good Russian?"
She and Tania had had a few exchanges in Russian during the trip that I had not attempted to follow; and I did not know what, if anything, my friend had told her of herself. Tania, though she had an American passport, was always very careful what she said in her native country. If the guide were more intelligent, I thought, she would have seen that Tania spoke good Russian because it was her native language. But I was not going to get her involved, so I merely replied:
"Why don't you ask her?"
"You do not know?" she asked, surprised.
"Da. Ya znayu," I said, calling on my few words of Russian. "Yes. I know. But it is better if you ask her."
***
It was easy to see why Tolstoy loved Yasnaya Polyana so passionately. Nature had made it a place of beauty and Tolstoy had endowed it with his own great spirit.
"The landscape, the view, the houses, the rooms," Ilya Repin, Russia's foremost nineteenth-century painter, remarked after his first visit, "…all is imbued here with a special, touching charm."
It was a gently rolling countryside, not unlike the Iowa where I had grown up, except that the soil here was not so rich. But it was more forested, especially with white-barked birches, which dominated the landscape, a tree Russians love above all others-as Tolstoy had. To him, his two thousand acres was Russia itself. "Without Yasnaya Polyana," he said, "I could hardly imagine Russia."
He was born there, in 1828, spent his childhood and early youth there, returned there after some years in Kazan and in military service in the Caucasus and at Sebastopol in the Crimea, brought his eighteen-year-old bride home there when he was thirty-four, and lived the rest of his life there, except for some winters in Moscow, until that dramatic early dawn of October 28, 1910, when, aged eighty-two, he stole out on tiptoe of the house in the autumn cold and darkness, abandoning his wife of forty-eight years to seek a little peace and quiet before he died. Ten days later, in the stationmaster's lonely little cottage opposite the railroad station in the small town of Ostapovo, he was dead.
Such a surprising tragedy and pathetic end for so great a man had haunted me since I first read about it in my youth. How could it have happened? And more important, why? In the beginning most critics, in Russia and abroad, blamed Tolstoy's formidable wife, Sophia Andreyevna, who they said had made life unbearable for her distinguished husband by her constant nagging and by the ugly quarrels and hysterical scenes she provoked. But later, when more was learned of the turbulent life of the Tolstoys and especially after the diary of Countess Tolstoy was published, it became evident that not all the blame, by any means, could be put on Sophia; that the old man himself carried a heavy responsibility, and that it was a very complicated story, which could not be depicted in blacks and whites. One critic, the French biographer Martine de Courcel, wrote a very civilized book, Tolstoy-the Ultimate Reconciliation, to prove that he finally left home in his old age, abandoning wife and family, because he had to get away to resume writing-a thesis that was not convincing to me.
My own conclusion, reached after years of thinking about it and reading all the material I could find-and it was vast-was that the final, tragic break had come as the inevitable climax of nearly half a century of a wonderful but stormy marriage of two very great personalities of tremendous ego, the man a genius, the woman formidable in her intelligence, drive, stubbornness, and love of her family. Both had strong temperaments, and Sophia, as she grew older, was subject to terrible outbursts of hysteria that jarred on the other. On that October evening there had been a final provocation that the fatigued and sorely tried author could no longer take from his wife. It caused something within him to snap. It forced him to a desperate act, to flee the family and home he loved in the dead of the freezing night. He sought not a place to resume writing-at eighty-two his oeuvre was pretty well finished-but a refuge from the hell of matrimonial strife, a place where he could have a little peace and quiet at the end of a long and stormy life.
Perhaps on this visit to Yasnaya Polyana, I could come across some new insights.
***
We entered the grounds between two old pillars that stood at the bottom of the birch-lined avenue that led up to the main house. The entrance itself was on the old Kiev road on which passed by, season after season, year after year, pilgrims setting off for or returning from the holy places that dotted the Russian land. Many would be on their way to Kiev and the famous Pechersky monastery there. Tolstoy, in his peasant blouse and high boots, often went down to the road to talk with them, "the fools of God," as they were called. He was fascinated by their tales. He often felt an urge to join them.
It was a very warm day-the record-breaking heat spell was relentless-and because of the heat and my heart condition, I had to take the ascending path to the main house slowly. It was not a grand palace by any means but a comfortably large country house of some twenty rooms. In 1862, when Tolstoy had brought his bride there from Moscow, it was much less imposing. The once-great mansion in which he was born had been broken up and most of it moved away to pay for gambling debts the young Tolstoy had run up while in the army. Only one small wing had remained for the bride and groom to start their life in-not nearly big enough to house the family when the children began to appear, as they did regularly nearly every year. So as his literary fortunes prospered and growing royalties came in, Tolstoy had added on one wing to each side of the main building.
Inside it seemed somewhat austere. Most rooms had floors of rough, wide planks without rugs or carpets, and were relatively small and not well lit. Not well heated, either, I judged, in Tolstoy's time. Now in 1986 central heating had replaced the old wood stoves. There was very little upholstered furniture in the house, though there was a large leather-covered couch in Tolstoy's study on which he and his brothers and sister and most of his children were born.
The Grande Salle was the most spacious room in the house, and it was there that the lively family life was centered. Meals were taken at a long table at one end. At the other end were two grand pianos at which Tolstoy and his wife often played, as well as visiting guests. I saw a photograph somewhere in the house taken by Countess Tolstoy of Alexander Goldenwieser, the pianist, and S. T. Taneyev, the composer and pianist, playing the pianos. Goldenwieser would become an ardent Tolstoyan and Taneyev the object of a strange, unrequited love of Sophia Tolstoy-much to the annoyance of her husband, who even before this bizarre happening used to say that Taneyev got on his nerves.
At a round table in one corner other visiting luminaries, Turgenev, Fet, Chekhov, Leskov, Korolenko, Gorky, and others sometimes gathered to discuss the latest news from Moscow and Petersburg and sometimes to read their works.
More often Tolstoy gathered there in the evening to chat with his wife and children and to read to them from his latest writing. On many an evening, if he could find a partner, Tolstoy would steal away to another corner of the room to play chess, which for him as for many Russians became a lifelong passion.
With the acquiescence of our special guide, a pleasant and attractive young woman who appeared to have memorized her remarks, which were informative but not very insightful, we moved quickly to the rooms that interested me most, where Tolstoy had worked at his writing and pondered the fate of Russia, mankind, and the world, where he and his wife had slept, the very rooms in which had taken place the dramatic denouement of the lives of Leo and Sophia Tolstoy on that October night of 1910. They were all on the second floor.
The library was too small to hold Tolstoy's twenty-two thousand books, so they were scattered in bookshelves all over the house. But the thousands of volumes that were there shed light on the great man's intellectual growth. There were books, for instance, in Greek and Hebrew, which Tolstoy had learned after his "conversion" at fifty when he had sought to achieve a better understanding of the New Testament, especially the Gospels, and of the Old Testament than he believed he was getting from the Orthodox Church. There were books in English, French, and German as well as Russian, on history, literature, philosophy, and science. There must have been a thousand books, Russian and foreign, autographed and inscribed to Tolstoy. The guide allowed me to thumb through a few of the books. There were dozens of annotations in the margins in Tolstoy's handwriting. In nearly every book he read, he noted down his reactions.
There were more books to peruse in Tolstoy's study, a room I found fascinating. According to the guide, the books in a two-tiered bookrack on the wall above his desk had been burned by German troops when they occupied the house between October 29, 1941 and early November of the following year, but they had been replaced after the war by identical copies. One of them on the second tier attracted my attention: a book in English by one Joseph D. Doke entitled M. K. Gandhi-Indian Patriot in South Africa.
In my time in India, Gandhi had often talked to me of the immense influence of Tolstoy on him.
"Have you read him?" he asked once.
"Yes. Most of the great novels, I think. Besides War and Peace and Anna Karenina, I've read Resurrection and The Kreuzer Sonata."
But Gandhi was not interested in Tolstoy's fiction.
"I mean," he said, "have you read The Kingdom of God Is Within You, The Gospels in Brief, What Can Be Done?, and his other great works on religion and philosophy?"
In his autobiography Gandhi wrote: "Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You overwhelmed me. It left an abiding impression on me. Before the independent thinking, profound morality and the truthfulness of this book, all the books [that he had previously been reading] seemed to pale into insignificance."
Later, Gandhi wrote, he made "an intensive study of Tolstoy's other books." They caused him to realize, he said, "the infinite possibilities of universal love."[78]
No wonder that when Gandhi set up his commune in the Transvaal in South Africa in 1910, the year of the great writers death, he called it "Tolstoy Farm."
Gandhi and Tolstoy had come into contact with each other by correspondence in 1909 when the young leader of the Indians in South Africa had written to the Russian writer about the condition of the Indians in the Transvaal and asked permission to publish a letter Tolstoy had written to an Indian editor in India. Tolstoy had answered (in English) from Yasnaya Polyana on September 25, 1909, saying that Gandhi's letter had given him "great pleasure" and that he was free to publish his letter.
"God help our dear brothers and workers in the Transvaal," he added. "I greet you fraternally and am glad to have intercourse with you."
A year later, on September 7, 1910, only seven weeks before his hasty departure from Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy again wrote Gandhi, this time a letter of some two thousand words and this time in Russian (translated by his chief disciple, Vladimir Chertkov) apparently so he could express his thoughts with greater precision and clarity. It is a long summary of his views of nonviolence and passive resistance and their relation to Christianity, written at a moment, he said, when he felt the "nearness of death." Gandhi published it in his Transvaal journal Indian Opinion on November 26, 1910, a few days after Tolstoy's death.
Glancing at the books in English in Tolstoy's study, I recalled a letter he had written, also in English, to Edward Garnet, the British critic, who had asked the Russian writer for a statement to American readers that he could insert in an article he was writing for Harper's Magazine on Tolstoy's new book, Resurrection. Replying on June 21, 1900, from Yasnaya Polyana (probably doing it in this very study), Tolstoy wrote that at first he hesitated to "send any message to the American people" but that on reflection
it came to me that if I had to address the American people, I should like to thank them for the great help from their writers who flourished about [the] fifties. I would mention Garrison, Parker, Emerson, Ballou, Thoreau, not as the greatest, but as those who I think specially influenced me. Other names are Channing, Whittier, Lowell, Walt Whitman-a bright constellation, such as is rarely to be found in the literatures of the world.[79]
And I should like to ask the American people why they do not pay more attention to these voices (hardly to be replaced by those of Gould, Rockefeller and Carnegie) and continue the good work in which they made such hopeful progress.
It was a good question, I thought. Apparently Americans at the beginning of the century valued their poets no more than they did at its end.
We had never had a writer who was so revered by the masses as Tolstoy. There was a reminder of this on his desk, a heavy, greenish, crystal paperweight sent to him by the workers at the Matltsov glassworks at Bryannsk. He took much pride in the inscription.
Most Esteemed Leo Nikolayevich:
You have shared the fate of numerous great men who surpassed their century. Formerly they were burned at the stake or they were left to rot in prisons or in exile. The "great priests," Pharisees, can excommunicate you as they wish. The Russian people will always be proud of you, their great, their dear, their beloved Tolstoy.
Scores of letters, not only from Russians of all sorts but also from foreigners all over the world, arrived at Yasnaya Polyana daily and were answered, many by Tolstoy himself, many at his direction by a full-time secretary and by his wife and children. To help them with the correspondence and also with copying manuscripts, a Remington typewriter, with Russian letters, had been sent the family from America. Though puzzled by the new-fangled contraption, the household soon got the hang of it and found it invaluable. Tolstoy's almost indecipherable manuscripts, which previously had been copied by hand by Sophia were henceforth typed. So were the letters, all on the old Remington set up in the secretary's office. The children called it the "Remington Room." All in all, Tolstoy received some fifty thousand letters in his lifetime. The letters he himself wrote occupy thirty volumes out of the ninety volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy, published in Moscow over a long period beginning in 1928, the hundredth anniversary of his birth.
I noticed another American gadget as I was leaving Tolstoy's study. In 1908, Thomas Edison had sent the Russian writer a phonograph. The gift caused great excitement in the household. Tolstoy was persuaded to use it in dictating letters and even articles. But he found it difficult to operate and after a few months gave it up. In the process, luckily, his voice was preserved on the recordings. But as I recalled hearing it some years before, it came out high pitched and scratchy, due probably to the state of the art at the beginning of the century.
A door led from the study into Tolstoy's bedroom. Beyond it was the bedroom of his wife. It was in these rooms and in the study that the brief acts took place on that October night of 1910 that led to the great writer's final flight from home.
Tolstoy's bedroom reflected the ascetic tastes of the last years of his life. A narrow brass bed (the guide called it an "iron bed") and next to it a night table, a trunk, and a wash-table. Only two pictures on the walls. No rugs or carpets covered the rough, wide-planked floor. In this room, the guide said, as in some of the others, the Germans had spread straw and set it afire as they left. The fire, she added, destroyed half the floor, a part of one wall, and the ceiling.
Sophia's bedroom, in contrast, which occupied the front corner of the upstairs, was crammed with furniture and with pictures of her husband, children, grandchildren, parents, and friends. There was a high commode and several small tables and a larger writing desk. At this desk Countess Tolstoy had spent a good part of her days, for she kept the daily accounts of the estate, wrote out the daily menus, kept up a large correspondence, made clear copies of her husband's manuscripts for the printer, corrected his proofs, and wrote daily entries in her diary. In one corner of the room was an old sewing machine, old even, she said, when she was given it by her mother, and on which she made all the blouses and underwear of her husband and repaired her own clothing and that of the children.
Obviously Sophia Andreyevna was a busy woman, which her husband, absorbed in his writing and his teaching, often seemed to have forgotten. If only she had contented herself with doing these things she did so well. But she was suspicious of her husband (not without reason) and this had gnawed at her for years until toward the end it had ended in a terrible obsession. She was sure he had made a secret will, at the instigation of her archenemy Vladimir Chertkov, a former guards officer who had turned Tolstoyan and pretty much taken over the man he worshipped, a will, she believed, that turned over the rest of the writer's copyrights and perhaps the estate itself to the Foundation Chertkov had set up to preserve the works of the master-leaving Sophia and the children penniless.
Her pervasive suspicion was what, late on the night of October 28, 1910, had caused her to jump up from her bed, light a candle, peep into her husband's bedroom to see that he was asleep, and proceed into his study to rummage through the drawers of his desk and tables and even under the leather covering of the old couch to find his secret diary for the last few days, which might give a clue to the whereabouts of the will or even its contents, or better still, to discover the will itself.
Her prowling awakened her husband. He told what followed in a diary entry the next day, jotted down in the Optina Monastery, the first stop on his precipitate flight.
October 28 [1910]. Went to bed at 11.30. Slept until after two. Woke up, and again, as on previous nights, I heard the opening of doors and footsteps. On previous nights I hadn't looked at my door, but this time I did look and saw through the crack a bright light in my study and heard rustling. It was Sophia Andreyevna looking for something and probably reading. The day before she was asking and insisting that I shouldn't lock my doors. Both her doors were open so that she could hear my slightest movement. Day and night all my movements and words have to be known to her and under her control. There were footsteps again, again the door opened carefully and she walked through the room.
I don't know why, but this aroused indignation and uncontrollable revulsion in me. I wanted to go back to sleep but couldn't; I tossed about for an hour or so, lit a candle and sat up. Sophia Andreyevna opened the door and came in, asking about 'my health' and expressing surprise at the light which she had seen in my room.
My indignation and revulsion grew. I gasped for breath, counted my pulse: 97. I couldn't go on lying there, and suddenly I took the final decision to leave. I wrote her a letter and began to pack the most necessary things, just so that I could leave. I woke Dusan and then Sasha[80] and they helped me pack. I trembled at the thought that she would hear and come out-that there would be a scene, hysterics-and I wouldn't be able to leave her without a scene.
Everything was packed somehow or other before 6; I walked to the stables to tell them to harness the horses.…The night was pitch black, I lost my way to the outhouse, found myself in a thicket, pricked myself, bumped into some trees, fell over, lost my cap, couldn't find it, made my way out again with an effort, went back home, took another cap and with the aid of a lantern made my way to the stables and ordered the horses to be harnessed.…I trembled as I waited to be pursued. But then we were on our way.
At that little railroad station at Shchekino a few kilometers from Yasnaya Polyana, they had to wait an hour for the train and Tolstoy wrote that "every minute I expected her to appear." But finally the train arrived, Tolstoy and Dusan got in (Sasha was left behind to give her mother the news and to report to her father on her mother's reaction) and the fugitive's trembling fear subsided. "Pity for her," he says, "rose up within me, but no doubt about having done what I had to do."
Considering the circumstances in which it was written, the desperation of the old man, the fear and trembling that he might be caught before he could escape, Tolstoy's departing letter to his wife of forty-eight years is remarkably composed. Sophia did not awaken the next morning until 11 A.M. Sasha then handed her the letter.
My departure will distress you. I'm sorry about this, but do understand and believe that I couldn't do otherwise. My position in the house is becoming, or has become, unbearable. Apart from everything else, I can't live any longer in these conditions of luxury in which I have been living, and I'm doing what old men of my age commonly do; leaving this worldly life in order to live the last days of my life in peace and solitude.
Please understand this and don't come after me, even if you find out where I am. Your coming would only make your position and mine worse and wouldn't alter my decision. I thank you for your honorable 48 years of life with me, and I beg you to forgive me for everything for which I am to blame towards you, just as I forgive you with all my soul for everything for which you may have been to blame towards me. I advise you to reconcile yourself to this new situation which my departure puts you in, and to have no unkind feelings toward me. If you want to let me know anything, tell Sasha; she will know where I am and will send on what is necessary; but she can't tell you where I am because I have made her promise not to tell anyone.
He signed it "Leo Tolstoy."
Sophia Tolstoy did not see her husband again until he was breathing his last and was unconscious of her presence. At Astapovo as he lay dying in the modest station-master house their children and her old enemy, Chertkov, would not let her into the house even to say farewell and to ask, as she pleaded she wanted to do, forgiveness from the husband she realized she had driven from home. I have seen a haunting photograph, taken I believe from a movie film shot by a Pathé News photographer, one of a thousand journalists who milled about the little railroad station, that shows Countess Tolstoy, a platok over her head and a long dark coat enveloping the rest of her body, standing on tiptoe at a window of the room where she knew her husband's life was ebbing away and stretching to see through it to him. Then she was taken away to a railroad car on a siding in which she was staying. On the last day, after he had lost consciousness, she was finally permitted to enter the room and embrace her husband and, though he could not hear her, ask for his forgiveness.
***
It was time to leave Yasnaya Polyana. Tania and the Intourist guide had gone over to see Tolstoy's grave, a simple mound without a mark of identification on it deep in the woods. I could not go along because of the heat and my faltering heart and because I needed to be alone for a few moments to collect my thoughts. I sat down on a bench near the porch of the old residence. The sun was going down beyond the birch and lime trees behind the house. The old writer had seen so many sunsets from this very spot and they made him rejoice over life that at other gloomier times seemed to him so cruel and meaningless. I remembered his elation at watching one sunset in particular and what he had written about it in a diary entry for 1904.
I looked at the sunset. What a joy! And I thought: no, this world is not a mere bubble, an ordeal only before passing into a better and eternal world, but is itself one of the eternal worlds which is beautiful and radiant, and in which we not only can but must make more beautiful and radiant for people who live with us and who will live after us.
As I sat on that hard bench my thoughts also turned to the Germans. They had occupied Yasnaya Polyana, and according to books I had read and now the testimony of the guide this day they had behaved like beasts, pilfering or destroying various objects in the house which the Russians had not been able to carry away and finally barbarously setting fire to the great house as they left. It had been saved, though not without some damage, by the heroic efforts of peasants, police, and volunteer firemen from the neighborhood, none of whom, perhaps like the German soldiers, probably had read Tolstoy but who revered a great writer and a great soul.
Why, I wondered, I who had sat in Berlin in the 1930s and watched the Nazi Germans march off to conquer the world, and who had seen them try to destroy their own fine culture, a part of Western civilization, after all-why did the Germans have this barbaric mania for destroying the great cultural works in the lands they occupied? In Russia, perhaps, especially? I had seen another terrible example of it four years before at the palace of Catherine at Pushkin, formerly Tsarskoye Selo (the czar's village), fifteen miles from Leningrad. It was a splendid work of art, of which the Russians were immensely proud-both before and after the Bolshevik Revolution.
German troops had arrived in September 1941, to begin the siege of Leningrad, which they were unable to take, and had departed in January 1944 when the general German retreat had forced them to abandon the siege. According to the Russians, German army detachments, stationed in the palace during the long siege, used the immense Throne Room, a work of art in itself, as a stable for their horses. Our guides produced photographs of the great hall, the floors strewn with straw, and horses scattered about. The Germans also pilfered numerous works of art that had not been carted away in time by the Russians. All this was bad enough, but much worse was to follow. As they were departing, the Russians swear, the Germans blew up the palace, destroying it.
In 1982, Russian workmen were still rebuilding the palace. But most of it had been restored-just as it was before, in all its splendor, and the Russians were very proud of it. But they wondered why the Germans had behaved so barbarously. One of the guides approached me. He had heard from someone in our party, he said, that I had been an American correspondent in Germany during the Nazi horror.
"You know the Germans, they tell me. Then perhaps you can tell me. Why do they blow up a palace like this? Did we blow up their palaces when our troops got to Berlin? Perhaps you were there at the end, and can tell me."
"Yes," I said. "I was in Berlin at the end, and the Russians did not blow up any palaces. All they blew up was Hitler's bunker. Our bombing pretty well destroyed the kaiser's old palace in the center of Berlin. But the old imperial palaces at Potsdam largely escaped the bombing. In fact, your Marshal Zukov occupied the crown prince's palace at Potsdam. But he did not use any part of it as a stable. I was invited out there once, to a party he gave on the anniversary of your revolution. The place was spick and span. And Marshal Zukov did not blow it up when he left."
"Then why do the Germans do it?" he persisted.
"I cannot explain it," I said. "All one can say is that's the way they are."
***
We arrived in Moscow that summer of 1986 exactly four weeks after the Russian nuclear plant at Chernobyl overheated and blew up, causing the worst atomic disaster in history. The poisonous fallout from the burnt-out reactor, which had spread more than a thousand miles to the far corners of western and northern Europe and done great damage to fields, lakes, and streams and to crops and grazing animals, had pretty much subsided. But the political fallout from the Soviet government's irresponsibility in first refusing to inform its own people and those countries which lay in the path of the windblown nuclear fumes had not dissipated.
The Kremlin itself was still in disarray about what to do, or at least what to tell. Despite glasnost-Gorbachev had been in power fourteen months-the government had not yet come clean about the facts. The blowout at Reactor Number Four at Chernobyl had occurred at 1:24 A.M. on Saturday, April 26. An explosion followed by a raging graphite fire that was so hot it melted the uranium and plutonium in the pressure tubes threatened to release thousands of tons of radioactive clouds into the atmosphere. Yet Moscow said not a word, not even when the Swedish government, which had detected incoming waves of radioactive air, asked it on Sunday, the twenty-seventh, if something was amiss in any of its nuclear plants. The answer, from an official of the Soviet Atomic Energy Commission in Moscow, was that he had no knowledge of any damage to a Russian reactor. It was not until the evening of Monday, April 28, two and a half days after the reactor blew, that Tass, the official Soviet news agency, issued a curt announcement that there had been "an accident" at the atomic energy plant at Chernobyl and that it was being investigated. There was no warning to the public as to what the consequences might be, though secretly the government had begun the evacuation of more than one hundred thousand people from the area around the stricken plant. When later in the week a little more information was given out, it was accompanied by an attack on the West, "for artificially stirring up a public outcry over Chernobyl."
In Moscow, in the absence of a press that was trusted by Russians, the wildest rumors spread and were still afloat when we arrived. One was that thousands of people had been killed and tens of thousands stricken by fallout. Refugees from Kiev, just south of the disaster area, were still packing the trains that arrived at the Kiev station in Moscow. But out of fear of the KGB, apparently, they said little. Russians were still skeptical about glasnost. They had learned to keep their mouths shut.
During our stay in Moscow, the silliest stories about Chernobyl continued to appear in the press, designed to assure the public that there was nothing to worry about. One day at the beginning of June, Tania called my attention to a piece in one-I think it was Isvestia, the newspaper of the government (Pravda was the daily paper of the party)-which was astonishing, but typical. A reporter and his photographer had chartered a boat at Kiev and motored up the Dnieper River to Chernobyl, where the Pripyat River empties into the Dnieper. They reported having a jolly time. Despite all the lies in the foreign press about the waters around Chernobyl being contaminated, they reported they had taken a long swim in the river, spent pleasant hours fishing off their boat, and had eaten the fish for supper. And this in an area where, as we learned later from the official Soviet account, a thousand square miles had to be decontaminated, one hundred and twelve thousand people evacuated and where besides twenty-nine killed, hundreds were severely injured by the fallout and thousands more subject to amounts of radioactivity so strong as to imperil their health for the rest of their lives.
What stands out in my memory of those tense days in Russia just after the inferno at Chernobyl was the realization that man had not yet learned to prevent or to cope with disasters to our nuclear power-generating plants. For the first forty-eight hours after it happened, the Soviet government was paralyzed by the news. It was as if its leaders could not believe it. When we were in Moscow, we heard that perhaps the Kremlin didn't really know what had occurred because the truth was being withheld from them by the party boss of the Ukraine, one Vladimir Shscherbitsky, who was also a member of the Politbureau. But this was not true. One of the leading Soviet nuclear scientists, V. A. Legasov, disclosed that he was told of the accident around 10 A.M. of the morning it happened and by noon he had been appointed a member of a government commission to go immediately to the scene and decide what should be done to stop the fire and halt the emission of radioactivity. He got there early enough that evening, he later testified, to see from eight to ten miles away the sky over Chernobyl lit up in an awesome crimson glow. He also found the Russian engineers at the plant and public officials "at loggerheads." They couldn't agree on how to put out the raging graphite fire.
Eventually the Soviet government did come clean about the Chernobyl blowout. In its report to the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, it disclosed for the first time the immense amount of fallout. "In all about 100 million curies of radioactivity were released into the atmosphere, about 3½ percent of the reactor's total inventory, including all the gaseous fission products, about 20 percent of the iodine and 10 percent of the caesium."
The Kremlin put the blame for the accident on the engineers who were on duty that night it happened, conducting an unauthorized experiment that ironically was meant to test the safety of the reactor. But in so doing, they committed six violations of their own rules. The government also acknowledged defects in the Russian designs for atomic reactors.
But the causes went deeper. The principal one was noted, in of all places, the columns of Pravda a couple of years later. In an article that could not have been published even when we were in Moscow in 1986, Legasov enumerated all the mistakes that had culminated in the disaster to Reactor Number Four at Chernobyl. The system of safeguards, he wrote, was defective and "the scientists knew it." But nothing was done to remedy the situation. "There were mistakes at every turn," he continued-human mistakes of the operators, mistakes in the projects and plans. The scientist said his blood "ran cold" when he read the transcript of telephone conversations between the operators the night of the catastrophe.
One operator rings another and asks: "The manual says what has to be done but there's a lot crossed out. What shall I do?" The man on the other end of the line thinks for a moment and replies: "Do what's crossed out."
But apart from all the blunders in operation and all the faults in design, there was one overriding, fundamental conclusion reached by Legasov that helps explain not only the blowup at Chernobyl but what had happened to the whole of industry, to the very economy of the Soviet Union after seventy years of Communism.
"The accident at Chernobyl," he concluded, "was the apotheosis and the highest point of all that was wrong in the management of our country's economy, and had been for many decades."
It was a statement that would have cost him his life under Stalin and a long spell in a Siberian Gulag under Khrushchev and Brezhnev, but now under Gorbachev was being published in the party's newspaper itself. The piece appeared in Pravda on May 20, 1988. Three weeks before, Legasov had killed himself.
Like us, after our own disaster at Three Mile Island, the Russians in the end learned a significant lesson from Chernobyl. They agreed that a serious accident to a nuclear plant henceforth would no longer be regarded as a Russian problem but as an international problem, that a damage to a plant on the Dnieper might pollute the atmosphere above Iceland or Lapland or any other far place and cause grievous damage. From now on, the Kremlin would join other governments in a frank and honest and timely warning system.
In a cynical, quarreling world, this was progress.
There was another lesson to be pondered by Chernobyl, it seemed to me. If the relatively simple operation of nuclear power-generating plants and also those that made nuclear ammunition for the big bombs was subject to human error, despite all the marvelous computers and other gadgets that were supposed to regulate and control them, then President Ronald Reagan's proposed Star Wars defense against a Soviet nuclear attack was also subject to the mistakes human beings inevitably make. And that since this was so, we could not depend on it to repel a nuclear assault from abroad.
For years, I had been saying in lectures, in articles, and in letters to our newspapers that, in my opinion, Star Wars was a hoax, a delusion of the president that unfortunately had fooled most Americans. Worse, I thought the president's massive propaganda for it was deceiving the American people into believing that there could be an absolute defense against nuclear attack.
I believe Star Wars will shortly be exposed as an impossible dream, a massively expensive project that could not work, and that there is no way in the foreseeable future, given our limited knowledge of space technology, to turn back an assault in the skies launched by either side. But even if there eventually were such a possibility and a space defensive system run by computers more advanced than we can imagine today, it would be subject to human error. Computers would break down or run amok. Men would lose control as they did at Chernobyl. The human race would be wiped out.
On the train from Moscow to Leningrad and on to Helsinki, I watched from the window the fields of wheat and the great forests pass by. Tania remarked that there was something about those fields and especially about those forests that was unlike the ones she had seen elsewhere-in Western Europe and in America-and that she still passionately loved them, as all Russians did. The visit to Yasnaya Polyana had impressed me with how deep that love was. I myself had begun to have a special feeling for this land and its people and I regretted that at my age and with my infirmities I probably would never see them again. I wished I had started earlier to visit them and learn the language but I had not been able, in time, to persuade the Soviet government to let me try.
CHAPTER 7
In 1985, before it was too late, I had made one last trip back to Western Europe, to London, Paris, and Berlin, where I had worked and lived for most of the twenty years between the wars. Surprisingly enough, CBS had asked me to go back to Berlin, from which I had broadcast for it during the Hitler years and into the first fifteen months of the war. It would be on May 8, the fortieth anniversary of VE-Day, when Germany surrendered to the Allies. President Ronald Reagan had, unwisely I thought, decided not to celebrate the victory or pay homage to Americans killed in the war, but to mark the day by honoring the German war dead at a military ceremony at Bitburg, Germany. The heads of state of our Western Allies in the war, the queen of England, the president of France, would be honoring their own war dead and celebrating the victory over Nazi barbarism.
A storm had blown up in America when it was discovered that among the twenty-eight hundred German soldiers buried at Bitburg, some forty-nine had served in the Waffen-S.S., a particularly odious Nazi party military outfit that had carried out some of the worst atrocities against the Jews and other victims. Some of the S.S. men buried at Bitburg, according to a report in the New York Times, had belonged to the infamous Second S.S. Panzer Division, Das Reich, which had carried out one of the most horrible massacres of World War II, the slaughter of 642 men, women, and children in the French village of Oradour-sûr-Glane.
The president of the United States was going to honor such murderers, along with other German war dead? Not only the Jews, but the American Legion and others protested. But Reagan stuck to his guns. He had promised the chancellor of West Germany, Helmut Kohl, that he would join him in honoring the German war dead at Bitburg on the anniversary of VE-Day. He would keep his promise.
The president made his position worse by foolish remarks which offended the victims of Nazism, particularly the Jews, and which showed up his abysmal ignorance of history. In defending his decision, he had said, among other things, that most of the German soldiers buried at Bitburg were as much victims of the Nazis as those done to death in the German concentration camps.
This seemed to me to be shocking and it moved me to write a letter to the New York Times, which was published on April 25, the eve of the president's departure for Germany. To equate the German soldiers buried at Bitburg, I wrote, with the victims done to death in the Nazi concentration camps, "seems to me a horrible violation of the truth." As a neutral war correspondent following the German Army through Poland in the fall of 1939 and through the Netherlands, Belgium, and France in the spring of 1940, I had talked with hundreds of German soldiers and not one had ever considered himself a victim of Nazism. On the contrary, they had fought for the Führer and Fatherland, as they put it, with "immense enthusiasm and dedication and very bravely." Even the German prisoners I helped interrogate on the U.S. First Army front four years later, at a time when the war must have seemed lost to them, expressed their complete loyalty to Hitler and the Nazi Reich.
The idea that most German soldiers felt themselves "victims of Nazism" is false. It saddens me that the President has embraced it and that he cannot see the difference between those loyal soldiers of the Third Reich and the millions the Germans butchered in the camps. I do not believe he can further reconciliation with the Germans on the basis of a falsehood.[81]
At first, after his Bitburg trip was announced, the president had refused to add to his itinerary a trip to a Nazi death camp, for fear of offending his German hosts.
"I didn't see any way," he told the foreign broadcasters, "that I as a guest of the state and of the government of Germany could take off on my own and go [to a camp], and that might look as if I was trying to do something different than the purpose that we had in mind."
But giving in to protests at home, he had finally agreed to visit a camp the same day as he laid a wreath at the Bitburg military cemetery. Chancellor Kohl eased the change of mind by inviting him to come with him to Bergen-Belsen.
The raging controversy over Bitburg raised questions about the Germans and ourselves that had been bothering me for years. I had not been back to Berlin since the Airlift of 1948-thirty-seven years before. I had set out for Germany in the summer of 1961, when The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich was published in Germany. But a German lawyer friend had called me and stopped me in Paris. A good many libel suits were being brought against me by Nazis. Even a firm that made the ovens for some of the concentration camps was suing. He thought it best not to take any chances with German courts imposing fines or even imprisonment.[82]
I accepted the invitation of CBS to return to Berlin that spring of 1985 to comment on German reaction to Bitburg and see how the Germans were faring forty years after the end of Hitler. Their attitude toward Reagan's visit to honor their war dead might give a clue. Bitburg had aroused so many old passions on all sides. I wanted to see if the Germans, who had behaved so savagely in the Nazi time when I was there, had much changed. And whether at last they had honestly tried to come to terms with their past. In a sense, in the Soviet Union I had felt the Russians faced a somewhat similar problem: to look back honestly at the crimes of Stalin. Khrushchev had made a beginning by his exposure of Stalin in an address to his Party Congress. But he had not dared to publish the speech in Russia. Under the drift of Brezhnev, the Kremlin had flinched from coming to grips with Stalin's past. It had continued to suppress history that conflicted with the party line.
***
Before I left for Berlin, I realized that this would almost certainly be my last experience with the Germans. Since the days of the Weimar Republic back in the late 1920s, I had been reporting on them, and yet they had always baffled me. Many German critics and also some at home had insisted that I didn't understand the Germans. They noted that I had occasionally admitted it, but these were times of despair, after the whole German people seemed to me to have embraced the madness of Nazism and I wrote that I could not understand how a folk who had given us Bach and Kant and Goethe and Schiller and Beethoven and even Wagner, among others, and who had been such ardent Christians, could connive in so much evil.
***
In Berlin that May, it was easy to ascertain the reaction of the Germans to Reagan's visit. They welcomed it. They loved it. The government, the press, radio and TV, and the people you talked to were almost unanimous. To the Germans-and the government and the press hammered it in-the president's visit meant the U.S.A. and the rest of the free world it led recognized at last that Germany's aggressive wars were a thing of the past, that Nazism had been dead for forty years, and that the world ought, as Reagan urged, forgive and forget. This solved the German guilt problem. They no longer would be reminded of history, that the Germans started World War II by attacking Poland on September 1, 1939, that they had also been the aggressor when German troops moved into Austria in March 1938, into Czechoslovakia in March 1939, into neutral, peaceful Denmark and Norway in April 1940 and into neutral, peaceful Belgium and the Netherlands in May. After the American president's gesture of reconciliation and his insistence that Nazism was the product of one man, Adolf Hitler, and that the conscripts in the German Army (all German soldiers were drafted) were as much victims of the Nazi tyranny as were the millions slain by the Germans in the death camps, after all this, the Germans seemed to think, they would no longer have to be reminded that the German government had cold-bloodedly carried out the massacre of millions of Jews and Slavs.
The German press I read and the Germans I talked to could not understand the fuss in America about there being Waffen-S.S. men buried in the cemetery President Reagan would be visiting. They made no distinction themselves. All had died for the Fatherland. Why single out an S.S. soldier? He too had given his life for the country.
The Germans did resent the uproar in America against Reagan's visit. The press howled about it. But it was dismissed by the Germans, as I believe Reagan had tried to dismiss it, as the work of "the American news media." And by many Germans as the work also "of the American Jews."
I was a little surprised at the anti-Semitism still lingering in Germany. I had supposed that at least was finished. (Complacently I forgot that it was far from extinct in my own country.) But anti-Semitism kept creeping into the articles in the press blaming the Jews in America for the opposition to Bitburg, in the remarks of some of the angered politicians, and in conversations I overheard in the cafes and restaurants.
Down the street from the Kürfurstendam hotel I was staying at, I noted, was a Jewish Community House, which, if my memory was correct, had been built on the very site of the largest synagogue in Berlin, itself set fire and destroyed by a Nazi mob egged on by Goebbels on Krystallnacht in November 1938. In strolling past it on one of my first days in Berlin, I had noticed two policemen patrolling back and forth before it, and wondered why. About dusk on May 7, I happened to look out my hotel window and noticed a large crowd gathered in the street before the building. I hurried down to see what was up. Most of the crowd consisted of Jews, but there were also representatives of the Trade Union Federation and a youth group, identifiable by their banners. My diary tells the rest.
…The occasion, I saw, was a protest against President Reagan going to Bitburg. A platoon of police stood on the street curb. A rabbi, apparently from West Germany, was speaking, deploring the president's insistence of going to Bitburg to honor the German war dead in a cemetery where 49 Waffen-S.S. men…lay buried next to the German soldiers. He made one remark that surprised me, after all the talk about the Germans having changed since the Nazi time. Calling attention to the band of police protecting the meeting, he said: "It is significant that in this country today Jewish buildings and institutions have to be guarded by the police-because the past threatens to catch up with us."
I must say that skeptical as I am about the Germans, I was shocked. This morning the Berlin newspapers give the meeting but a few lines and say only "a few hundred" were at the gathering. I went down to check this morning if the Jewish Community House was really guarded around the clock, as someone had told me. Two policemen sauntered up and down the sidewalk outside.
By this time, Reagan had departed Germany and indeed on the morning of May 8, the actual anniversary of VE-Day, the Morganpost, one of Berlin's leading newspapers, played down the occasion, and put at the top of its front page a large photograph of Nancy Reagan dancing the flamenco with a young Spaniard. The president and his party had hopped off to Spain for a day before circling back to mark VE-Day with an address to the European Parliament at Strasbourg.
There had been no speeches at the brief ceremony at the Bitburg military cemetery. President Reagan and Chancellor Helmut Kohl, who was at his side throughout the day, laid their wreaths at the base of a cemetery tower in silence. Mr. Reagan, the reporters said, appeared not to see two S.S. graves a few feet away from where he and the German leader stood. He could not have seen the wreaths that had lain on the two graves shortly before he arrived. One had a banner: "To the Waffen-S.S. who fell at Leningrad." The other read: "To the fallen comrades of the Waffen-S.S." They had been removed temporarily during the president's appearance and restored as soon as he left.
At the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where fifty thousand Jews murdered there lay buried in mass graves, President Reagan spoke movingly. But twice, he alluded to the Nazi evil as being the work of "one man." "The awful evil started by one man," he said, "led to the deaths in the camps." And, "until that man and his evil were destroyed," he added, the killing went on.
After the wreath-laying at the military cemetery, the president spoke at a gathering of some five thousand American soldiers, their families, and a scattering of Germans at a U.S. air base at Bitburg, a mile from the military cemetery. He told of just coming from the ceremony there and of the emotions it raised in him. The war, he said, had been "against one man's totalitarian dictatorship." So we could "mourn the German war dead today as human beings crushed by a vicious ideology." It was an extenuation of his remarks made earlier in Washington that German soldiers drafted into service were just as much victims of Nazism as those done to death in the concentration camps, a contention, as I have written, that was a horrible distortion of the truth.
Reagan's misleading remarks about the innocence of German soldiers seemed to reflect his blind acceptance of a view propagandized by successive Bonn governments that the German armed forces and especially the army had no responsibility at all for what the Third Reich had done to humanity and that therefore its successor, the army of the Federal Republic, the Bundewehr, had no stains from the past.[83]
The truth was that the German Army bore a grave responsibility for the evils Hitler wrought-for his wars of aggression which it fought so fiercely and well, for his brutal treatment of the occupied lands, for the deaths by deliberate starvation and exposure of more than two million Russian prisoners-of-war, and even, in part at least, for the massacre of the Jews.
Although the Nuremberg Tribunal, through a technicality, found the German High Command and the General Staff not guilty of Nazi crimes, it castigated the German field marshals and generals who had done Hitler's bidding.
They have been a disgrace to the honorable profession of arms. Without their military guidance, the aggressive ambitions of Hitler and his fellow Nazis would have been academic and sterile. Although they were not a group…they were certainly a military caste.…Many of them have made a mockery of the soldier's oath of obedience to military orders.…The truth is that they actively participated in all these crimes, or sat silent and acquiescent, witnessing the commission of crimes on a scale larger and more shocking than the world ever has had the misfortune of knowing.
To emphasize the participation of the German Army in Hitler's war crimes, the court found the Führer's two top generals, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the High Command, and General Alfred Jodl, chief of operations, guilty on all four counts of the indictment and sentenced them to be hanged.
At Nuremberg and at the subsequent trials of several German generals before an American court, gruesome evidence turned up against some of the most prominent leaders of the German Army. Field Marshal Walter von Reichenau, commander of Army Group South in Russia, issued an order on October 10, 1941, which rivaled some of those of Hitler. He called the German attack on the Soviet Union "a war against the Jewish-Bolshevist system" and told his troops that they must understand "the necessity of a severe but just revenge on subhuman Jewry."
As early as September 8, 1941, less than three months after the launching of the attack on Russia, General Hermann Reinecke, who was in charge of prisoner-of-war camps in the east, ordered that captured Russians not be treated according to the Geneva Conventions. A directive from the High Command itself backed him up. The result was that of 5,700,000 Russian prisoners-of-war, only 2,000,000 survived the war. According to German official figures, 473,000 were executed. More than 2,000,000 were left to die of hunger and exposure. The order for this odious crime came from Hitler and Göring. But the Russian war prisoners were in the custody of the German Army, which was responsible for treating them humanely, according to rules laid down by the Geneva Conventions.
Of course, American POWs on the western front were also killed, seventy-two in cold blood on December 17, 1944, near Malmedy, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge. But the number was extremely small compared to the Russians, and the killings were carried out by the Waffen-S.S., not the regular army. At Malmedy, a combat group of the First S.S. Panzer Division was responsible.[84]
At Nuremberg, I recalled, there came to light three highly secret directives that besmirched the honor of the German Army though, to their credit, many generals refused to obey them. The first of them was the so-called Commissar Order. Hitler himself, on the eve of the attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, called in the chiefs of the three armed services and the key army field commanders and told them of his order to execute without court-martial and without delay all political commissars attached to captured Red Army units. Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, on the stand at Nuremberg, recalled the dilemma this odious order created. "It was the first time," he testified, "that I found myself involved in a conflict between my soldierly concepts and my duty to obey."
Manstein decided not to obey. He did not say so to Hitler at the conference-that would have meant his head-but he says he informed the commander of the army group under which he served. Others also declined to carry out the decree. Some obeyed. Many turned the job over to S.S. units and thus eased their consciences.
It was the same with Hitler's order, which he issued through the High Command, to exterminate all British and American commandos captured in the west. They were "to be slaughtered to the last man." General Jodl himself became involved in the infamous order. He issued instructions that "this order is intended for commanders only and must not under any circumstances fall into enemy hands." The generals were told by Jodl to destroy all copies of the order as soon as they had taken due note.
On the stand in Nuremberg, Field Marshal Keitel told the court that he was forced by Hitler to order many war crimes but the worst, he said, was the Nacht und Nebel Erlass-the "Night and Fog Decree." This one concerned the west and was issued by Hitler on December 7, 1941. It called for the arrest of all persons "endangering German security." If they were not immediately executed, they were to be taken to Germany and made to vanish into the night and fog of the unknown. No information was to be given their families as to their fate even when it was merely a question of where they were buried. They were to be made to disappear forever.
Five days later, on December 12, Field Marshal Keitel, in the name of the High Command, issued a directive explaining the order.
In general the punishment for offenses committed against the German State is a death penalty.…Effective intimidation can only be achieved either by capital punishment or by measures by which the relatives of the criminal and the population do not know his fate.
In case anyone still misunderstood the order or hesitated to carry it out, Keitel sent out another instruction in the name of the High Command. Where the death penalty was not meted out within eight days of a person's arrest,
the prisoners are to be transported to Germany secretly. These measures will have a deterrent effect because
(a) the prisoners will vanish without leaving a trace,
(b) no information may be given as to their whereabouts or their fate.
How many Western Europeans (mostly the French were involved) disappeared into the "Night and Fog" was never established at Nuremberg. There were no records and no marked graves.
***
What responsibility the army shared with purely Nazi organizations in the "Final Solution" for the Jews was much debated at Nuremberg. On the whole, the army commands left the dirty work to the S.S., which ran the camps and did the actual exterminating. But as the courts at Nuremberg found, the German Army officers knew what was going on, knew that millions of Jews were being done to death in the camps and looked the other way. At times, they aided the S.S. in rounding up the Jews in the occupied territories and helped organize their transport-often across half of Europe-to the death camps. This was especially true in Russia, Belgium, France, Yugoslavia, and Greece, where the German military had much to answer for in what it did to the Jews.
The German Army had long had a tradition of anti-Semitism. In the Prussian Army which marched off to war in 1914, no Jew could be an officer, though during the war such restrictions were relaxed, especially in the non-Prussian units, and some Jews became officers. Some thirty-five thousand Jewish soldiers received the Iron Cross for bravery. No Jew, though, could be awarded the highest decoration, Pour le Mérite. The German Army that served Hitler so well was "not friendly to Jews," General Siegfried Westphal once declared, "but it was not anti-Semitically inclined." However, no Jews were allowed to serve in the armed forces under Hitler. And there is no doubt that in the Second World War a number of German commanders of the highest rank, though certainly not all, indoctrinated their troops with a violent hatred of the Jews, calling them, as Field Marshal von Reichenau did, "subhumans," and that furthermore they sometimes assisted the S.S. in the persecution and massacre of the Jews.
As we have seen, the Jews were not the only victims of Nazi savagery in which the German Army was implicated. One had to remember the Russian war prisoners who were deliberately left to die of starvation and exposure, and the Russian commissars and the Anglo-American commandos executed after their capture. And the unknown number of human beings in the German occupied lands in the west rounded up under the Nacht und Nebel decree and made to disappear forever in the "night and fog" of Germany. And the shooting of hostages by German Army commanders-29,660 in France alone.
It was the dead of this German Army and of this German S.S. that President Reagan honored at Bitburg. No doubt he did it with the best of intentions. But also out of ignorance of the past. I'm sure he sincerely believed, as he recently had said, that the German soldiers who died under Hitler were as much victims of Nazism as were the Jews murdered in the death camps. But it was not true, and the reconciliation he sought, and that we all seek in the end, could not be based on a falsehood.
President Reagan came to Bitburg under another illusion. Chancellor Kohl apparently had convinced him that the Waffen-S.S. men buried at the military cemetery had, like himself, been drafted into its ranks at the age of fifteen or sixteen in the closing months of the war when replacements were badly needed.
This was not true, at least in the case of ten of the forty-nine Waffen-S.S. soldiers who lay at rest at Bitburg. On May 3, two days before the president visited the cemetery, I was able to obtain in Berlin the complete army records of these ten. The papers disclosed that all ten were veteran Nazis. All were over thirty when they were killed, all had been decorated for being part of the German Armed Forces that invaded Austria in 1938, Czechoslovakia the next year, and Poland later that same year. One had served for a time as a guard at the Dachau concentration camp.
President Reagan's view of Germany's Nazi past was based on ignorance. He probably would have been the first to admit that he was no great student of history, and his American advisers who had arranged the trip could easily make the same admission. But Chancellor Kohl, who had given the president most of his ideas, and the German people had no such excuse. They knew the terrible past that had climaxed in the Holocaust. The question was whether they could face it. After forty years since the Allies, not the Germans, made an end of Hitler, could the Germans confront the principal question: How was it possible for this nation to have committed the horrendous crimes it did under Hitler? Until the question was at least posed, it seemed to me, and an answer at least sought, until the past, that is, was squarely faced, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to build up a new, decent, civilized Germany.
My feeling was that most Germans had not faced that question, had no wish to come to terms with the past or even understand it.
Probably many of them already had taken themselves off the hook. I read as many German newspapers as I could, and listened for hours to German television, and both the press and TV left me with the impression that Mr. Reagan's visit had made the Germans more complacent than ever about their Nazi past. Let's forget it, they seemed to say, and they rejoiced that Mr. Reagan was saying the same thing. They were annoyed that so many Americans wanted to distinguish between the dead of the army and those of the Waffen-S.S. And they resented the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives for voting overwhelmingly to ask the president not to go to Bitburg.
There was another view being increasingly expressed in Germany that spring of 1985 that disturbed me. One evening in a talk in a Bierkeller, a German acquaintance who, I knew, had not supported the Nazis, though like others he had gone along, brought it up. Yes, he said, the Nazis had committed some horrible crimes, but so had the Allies, especially the Russians. War made barbarians of men-on both sides. Why not let bygones be bygones? So German guilt was relative. Actually in some of the German newspapers, I had, to my surprise, noticed somewhat similar comments.
I concluded in the end that they may have first been inspired by the editor of an influential weekly German journal, Der Spiegel, Rudolf Augstein. His lengthy piece early in 1985 was an angry diatribe against the Bitburg ceremonies. "Let them [the Allies] celebrate," he wrote, "because they won the war. We can watch and need not participate."
But what most bothered Augstein was the constant reminder of the outside world that the Germans bore a terrible guilt for the crimes of Adolf Hitler. Why put all the blame on the Germans? he asked. "Whether the anti-Hitler Allies committed fewer crimes than Hitler is not at all certain. The one who initiated such crimes against humanity was, in any case, Stalin in 1928."
As to the extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, this influential German editor did not deny that it took place, though he remarked that mostly "foreign Jews" were slain-"within the Reich there were only 50,000 of them."
The Jews themselves, he went on, were far from blameless. In this regard, he brought up Henry Morgenthau, President Roosevelt's secretary of the treasury, who was a Jew. The "Morgenthau Plan," he told his readers, would have subjugated a defeated Germany and reduced it to a terrible state. (Though he did not say so, this was what Hitler had in store for Poland and Russia.) In fact, he added, Morgenthau would have been "a good follower of Hitler."
But not only Morgenthau. Augstein claimed that in 1941, "when nobody knew anything yet about Hitler's gas chambers," Theodore Nathan Kaufman, president of the American Peace Society, proposed that the German people be sterilized so that they would disappear. Finally, the German editor appeared to equate the brutal German treatment of Russians in the occupied territories with the Russian-Polish expulsion of Germans in the east after the war.
The same effort to balance war crimes was made by a five-part television series that drew a big audience in West Germany that spring. It was entitled "The War of the Bombers," and its theme was that whatever destruction German bombers wrought on the enemy was no worse than what Allied bombers did to German cities, climaxed by the terrible American firebombing of Dresden. Polls showed that the motive of the film was not lost on most Germans, who believed that both sides were equally to blame for the bombing of innocent citizens in the great cities. The polls also showed that most Germans were fed up with all the documentary reports on the crimes of the Nazis and of World War II.
Apparently, as I feared at the time, the lessons of the Nuremberg trials had been lost on the Germans. Whatever the crimes of the Allies in the war, the Germans could not see, or did not wish to remember, that the Third Reich had started the war by attacking Poland, had started the massive bombing of the great cities, and that it was the only nation which had systematically tried to wipe out a whole race of people and, in massacring six million of them before it was defeated, had almost succeeded.
And finally on this subject: I kept hearing in Germany that May a terrible story that I was told had been circulating in the country for years. It was about the fifteen-year-old Anne Frank, whom President Reagan had alluded to in his remarks at the Bergen-Belsen death camp and who had been murdered and presumably buried there. The story told of a German woman who had attended a performance of the play based on The Diary of Anne Frank. She was deeply moved by the drama and leaving the theater, she turned to someone and in a shaken voice said, "Yes, but really, at least that girl ought to have been allowed to live."
***
I left Berlin that bright spring of 1985 in a state of deep depression. I felt worse, I believe, than that snowy December day in 1940, forty-five years before when I departed from Nazi Germany for the last time. By then, Hitler had conquered Poland in the East and Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France in the West. Great Britain, the cream of its army lost in France that summer, held out alone against the conquering Germans. I still held out hope she would survive, somehow, but few, especially at home, gave her much chance. A Europe enslaved by the Nazi barbarians seemed too awful to contemplate, but one had to face the possibility, even, as it seemed to many, the probability. The very prospect brought a man to the depths of despair. I was in a black mood. But it was lightened somewhat by my selfishness. I felt such a relief to be getting out alive from the Nazi inferno that I was almost happy. When I returned to Germany four years later, at the end of the war, she lay in ruins. However much you hated Nazism and what these people had done under Nazism, you were saddened by their plight.
But now, forty years later, they had risen from the rubble. They had, with Allied help, rebuilt their country. They were once again prosperous and proud. I did not begrudge them their happy state. Welcome to it. But I was depressed deep down by their failure to face the past. They did not even want to remember it.
Not all, to be sure. There was one in high office who on that very VE-Day looked back unblinkingly and remembered. This was the president of the Federal Republic, Richard von Weizsaecker. I had known his father, the permanent state secretary and the brains of the Nazi German Foreign Office, who after the war claimed to have been an anti-Nazi all along but who had served Hitler well. He did not escape Allied justice in the end, receiving as I recall, a five-year prison sentence of which he served eighteen months. At Nuremberg, his son had defended his father but this may have been more out of filial loyalty than conviction. Still, many Germans-and certainly I-were surprised by his speech on the Bundestag on May 8, for the like of it had not been heard very often, if ever, in postwar West Germany. He insisted that Germans remember the past and face its consequences. As I listened to the broadcast, I regretted that Mr. Reagan could not have been present to hear it, but the president, dodging any anniversary celebration of the Allied triumph over Germany (so as not to offend the Germans?), was addressing the European Parliament in Strasbourg that day, warning it of the Russian danger.
First, the German president faced squarely what the Germans under Hitler had done to the Jews. "The genocide of the Jews," he said, "is unparalleled in history." Why had the German people ignored it?
There were many ways of not burdening one's conscience, of shirking responsibility, looking away, keeping mum. When the unspeakable truth of the Holocaust became known at the end of the war, all too many of us claimed that they had known nothing about it or even suspected anything.
All of us, whether guilty or not, whether old or young, must accept the past. We are all affected by its consequences and liable for it.…It is not a case of coming to terms with the past. That is not possible. It can not be subsequently modified or undone. However, anyone who closes his mind to the past is blind to the present. Whoever refuses to remember the inhumanity is prone to new risks of infection.
He quoted an old Jewish proverb: "Seeking to forget makes exiles of us all the longer. The secret of redemption lies in remembrance."[85]
I wondered why Chancellor Kohl, who inveigled Reagan into making his unfortunate trip to Bitburg and had filled him with what I believed to be historical untruths, had not spoken out as frankly and honestly as his German president. Why couldn't he too face the past?
I was wrong about Kohl, as I discovered after I left Germany. At home I came across a speech he had made on April 21, 1985, a month before Reagan's visit at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. It had not been widely reported, at least over here. The chancellor's remarks were as blunt about Germans facing the past as were those of Wiezsaecker. If only he had uttered similar words in the presence of Ronald Reagan!
Reconciliation, he said, was only possible
if we accept our history as it really was. If we Germans acknowledge our shame and our historical responsibility.…For twelve years…Germany under the National Socialist regime filled the world with fear and horror. That era of slaughter, indeed of genocide, is the darkest, most painful chapter in German history. One of our country's paramount tasks is to…keep alive an awareness of the full extent of this historical burden. We must not, nor shall we ever forget the atrocities committed under the Hitler regime,…the systematic inhumanity of the Nazi dictatorship. A nation that abandons its history forsakes itself.
Kohl then came to what he called the decisive question.
The decisive question is why so many people remained apathetic, did not listen properly, closed their eyes to reality.[86]
Kohl might have gone further and asked why so many Germans fanatically backed Hitler from the beginning to the bitter end.
It was a question that aroused such a furor in West Germany three and a half years later in November 1988, just as I was writing these lines, that it forced Philipp Jenninger, the president of the Bundestag, to resign.
It was a curious happening involving on the one hand the clumsiness and insensitivity of the well-meaning House Speaker, which many of his colleagues resented, and on the other hand his maladroit but truthful reminder of how the German people had given their ardent support to the barbarian German dictator.
That his remarks, or the way he had drafted them and delivered them, were given at a special session of the Bundestag which he had called to mark the fiftieth anniversary of Krystallnacht was unfortunate. For that was the "night of the broken glass" on November 9-10, 1938, when the German government had carried out a pogrom against the Jews, burning down their synagogues, meeting houses, places of business and homes, killing several hundred, carting thirty thousand off to concentration camps and then fining what was left of the Jewish community a billion marks. On that gruesome night, Nazi Germany had turned down a dark and savage road that would lead to the Holocaust.
It was on the fiftieth anniversary of that night that Philipp Jenninger chose to speak out and remind his fellow Germans that the Nazi regime which had perpetrated such horrors had the enthusiastic support of most Germans. This was true, as all of us who lived in Germany in those days knew, but, as we have seen, the Bonn government, starting with Adenauer, had denied it. Unfortunately Jenninger, a moderate, a friend actually of the Jews and of Israel, which he had often visited, was so clumsy in presenting this truth that many of his listeners thought he was defending the Nazi past and they walked out in indignation.
You could scarcely blame them. For here was the House Speaker saying that the years between 1933 and 1938 remained "fascinating" because "there was hardly a parallel in history to Hitler's triumphs during those first years."
He then proceeded to recount them: the return of the Saar, the introduction of a conscript army in defiance of Versailles, the Anglo-German naval accords, which released Germany from the naval restrictions of the peace treaty, the Olympic summer games in Berlin, the annexation of Austria, the Munich agreement, the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.
And not only that: mass unemployment turned into full employment; from mass misery there was something like prosperity for the widest section of the population. Instead of desperation and hopelessness, optimism and self-confidence reigned.
This was all true. This is the way I reported it at the time. Hitler was giving the Germans what they wanted. That is why they backed him. But it sounded to the audience as if the Speaker was heaping praise on the Nazi regime.
Did not Hitler [the Speaker continued] make into reality what was only promised under Wilhelm II, that is, to bring wonderful times to the Germans? Was not Hitler someone selected by Providence, a leader who was only given to a people once in a thousand years?…Who could doubt that in 1938 a majority of Germans stood behind him and identified themselves with his politics.
I certainly never doubted it. But by this time in his speech, the Speaker apparently was making it sound as if he agreed with the Germans of fifty years before, which he didn't.
"Perhaps," he went on,
one enjoyed fewer freedoms in some areas of life but one's lot was better than before and the Reich was greater again, bigger and more powerful than ever before. Had not the leaders of Britain, France and Italy visited Hitler in Munich and helped him achieve greater successes than were thought possible?
What about the Nazi brutality toward the Jews? Here the Speaker lost his way and, as it turned out, his job.
And as for the Jews, hadn't they in the past, after all, sought a position that was not their place? Mustn't they now accept a bit of curbing? Hadn't they, in fact, earned being put in their place?…And when things got much too ugly, as in November 1938, one could always say, in the words of a contemporary: what does that have to do with us?
Indeed that was what the Germans were saying of the Jews in my time in Nazi Germany. But to be reminded of it fifty years later, and in a way that seemed to reflect the views of the distinguished Speaker, was too much. He was forced to resign, pleading that his speech was not understood in the way he meant it to be.
But lost in the furor was the fact that the Bundestag president had told some important truths about the past, and that this did not go down well with many Germans.
While Israel and many Jews worldwide protested Jenninger's remarks, the vice-president of the Central Council of Jews in West Germany, Michael Fuerst, praised them. He applauded the Speaker's bringing "such clarity about what the situation was like in Germany between 1933 and 1938.…It expressed the fact that everything Hitler did was supported by the whole German people."[87]
Indeed, if the Speaker got that across, he deserved, I thought, the thanks not only of the present-day Germans but of the present-day Americans, who for too long had professed to believe that it was not so, though it was. Facing the past started here. Believing in an ugly lie was no longer excusable.
***
And so for the last time that spring of 1985, I took leave of the Germans, among whom I had spent so many years that went back more than half a century. My life and work had been intertwined with theirs during, as Kohl himself put it, the worst, the darkest period in their history. It had been a horror to live through. What perhaps had made it worse for me was that my ancestors, on my father's side, had been Germans, my very name had been Anglicized from the German, and from boyhood I had felt a certain affinity for these kindred people and their philosophers, poets, and composers.
As a human being, I would have preferred to have escaped this long German chapter in my life. But as a journalist and eventual writer, I did not regret it. The long Nazi night had given me much to think and write about, first as a newspaperman and broadcaster and then as a historian of those times. It was an experience such as was given to few foreigners: to have seen Hitler at work, at the dizzy Nuremberg party rallies, at the moments of crisis when he addressed the Reichstag, at Munich the night he humbled Chamberlain and Daladier over Czechoslovakia, in Poland during his first armed conquest, and at Compiègne in June 1940 when he humbled France at the Franco-German armistice proceedings. I had also seen at close quarters the other Nazi monsters at their jobs, Göring, the corpulent swashbuckling number-two man, Goebbels, the nimble, cynical, warped propaganda minister, number three, Himmler, the terrible, sadistic killer, chief of the S.S. and Gestapo, and the arrogant, ignorant Ribbentrop, who did so much harm as foreign minister.
And I had seen them all again, minus Hitler, Goebbels, and Himmler, at Nuremberg at the end of the war, witnessing something I had never expected to see in this unjust world: the bringing to justice of these shabby criminals whom the German people had followed so enthusiastically so long. Ten were hanged, Ribbentrop the first of all. Göring escaped the gallows at the last hour by swallowing a vial of poison. By that time, Hitler, Goebbels, and Himmler had also killed themselves.
After the Nazi years, I no longer felt any affinity for the Germans. A people who could behave so bestially, who could treat others with so much brutality, who could try to massacre a whole people because of their race, who had such a lust for conquest and domination, who so savagely violated the human spirit-were they not barbarians who had to be watched and restrained? How could you trust them not to break out again, as they had under Bismarck, Wilhelm II, and then Hitler? Philosophers and statesmen and historians said you could not condemn an entire people. But this entire people, with a few honorable exceptions, had joined together under the primitive swastika to participate in unspeakable crimes. They were not to be condemned for it? They were not to be held responsible? They were to be trusted? Certainly in that brief period of my return to Berlin in 1985, forty years after the destruction of the Nazis by the Allies, the Germans seemed like a normal people. One sat on the café terraces or in the Bierkellers or in their homes talking to them as one human being to another. Had they changed? For good? Does any great people change fundamentally?
I kept mulling the questions but I came up with no answers. One had to leave it at that. Time, as they said, would tell. But I would not be around if and when it did. I felt no bitterness toward these people. I had had some of the best friends of my life among them. It was not as individuals but as a people that I had my doubts and fears about them.
Goethe, a great German and a great poet, had this feeling too. As my plane for Paris took off and we flew over the divided city with the abominable wall separating East and West and as I glanced down for what I was sure was the last time at Berlin, Goethe's words came back to me and seemed near to my own thoughts:
I have often felt a bitter sorrow at the thought of the German people, which is so estimable in the individual and so wretched in the generality.
CHAPTER 8
I took a final farewell of London and Paris too.
To celebrate VE-Day, CBS had arranged a reunion of its old foreign correspondents, Murrow's boys who had covered the war for it. We were to reminisce about the old days in a broadcast from the Café Royal. Walker Cronkite, who had been with the United Press in London during the war, joined us and Dan Rather, the anchor of the CBS Evening News, who was too young for the war, was flown over from New York to preside over our meeting.
Some friction [I noted in my diary] between Dan and Walter, who may have wanted to anchor the program himself. Dan started the broadcast with a question to Walter, who sat at his right, and Walter promptly put him down. "Well," he said in his richly avuncular fashion, "I think, Dan, I would put the question a little different," which he proceeded to do.
It was good to see some of my old comrades again, especially Eric Sevareid and Charles Collingwood, whom Murrow had recruited at the beginning of the war. Later, the three of us had dinner together, talking about the old times and catching up on each other's news, for I had not seen either of them for years. Sevareid seemed a little bitter that CBS had forced him to retire at sixty-five (as it had Cronkite; only Bill Paley, the chief, was exempted-by himself-from the rules) and somewhat at loose ends apparently because he had not found enough work elsewhere to make him happy. He seemed to regret too that he had not done more writing. As his autobiography showed, he was a talented writer, but he had chosen to stick with his broadcasting until he was retired. Collingwood still had a job at CBS, but he had been shunted aside for new and younger talent, though this did not seem to have embittered him. He took it philosophically. As he did something much more troubling.
"Bill," he said toward the end of the meal, "I've got cancer."
He was taking chemotherapy, he said, and hoping for the best. He did not dwell on it. He was facing it bravely. A few months later, in New York, he died.
I had only the weekend in London, most of it devoted to the broadcast and to doing some taping for CBS. There was no time to get out into the streets to get the feel of the place or to see the few friends still living, who might bring me up to date on the state of the island. Maggie Thatcher, the Tory prime minister, seemed firmly in charge. She was a great survivor and had been in power, or soon would be, longer than any British prime minister in modern history. Thatcher was a sort of British Ronald Reagan in her ultra-conservatism and she was popular for about the same reasons he was. The Labour party, in which most of my friends had been, seemed in disarray, unable to decide on a program that might attract a majority of the electorate. The Social Democrats, consisting mostly of former moderate Labourites, and their ally, the Liberals, were no longer a challenge to the Tories. Maggie Thatcher ruled supreme. The British had had their ruling queens, they had one now in Elizabeth, but Mrs. Thatcher, I believe, was their first woman prime minister.
Since most of my friends had been a little older than me, most of them were gone. Russell Strauss, now retired, the old left-winger of the Labour party, but growing more conservative as the years passed by, survived as "Lord Strauss."
And Jennie Lee had become Baroness Lee of Asheridge.
Lady Lee? Sitting in the sedate House of Lords? For some of us among her friends who remembered her impassioned speeches in the House of Commons on behalf of the underprivileged, it was hard to imagine.[88] Jennie survived her husband, Nye Bevin, by twenty-eight years. She died in London at eighty-four on November 16, 1988.
***
After my deep depression in Berlin, I thought a week in Paris might restore my spirits. I very much wanted to see it once again before it was too late.
Always before when I returned to Paris I had a job to do, for decades reporting and then in the 1960s to research a book on the fall of France, and finally to beat the drums for the French editions of my books by submitting to endless interviews on the air for television and radio, and off the air for the press.
But now in May 1985, after Berlin, I came for the first time in my life, not to work but just to see my old haunts and to say farewell to the city and country that had given me so much.
Paris in May was as lovely as ever; it was always at its best in springtime. The chestnut trees were about to blossom along the boulevards, people in every neighborhood were filling the terraces of the cafés to enjoy the season or milling up and down the boulevards. In my favorite park, the Luxembourg Garden, where I had spent so many happy hours, the youngsters were sailing their little boats on the waters beneath the fountain opposite the Medici Palace, and in another area old men were playing Balle-just as the children and the elderly had done in this park sixty years before when I first discovered it. And just as before, barges moved slowly up and down the Seine, beneath the graceful bridges, past Notre Dame and the Isle St. Louis.
And yet I did not find in Paris the solace I sought. There were three reasons, I finally realized. I had no assignment, and for this reason, I felt somewhat at loose ends. Second, most of my French friends were gone, including Yvonne, who had been five years older than I, though it had made no difference when we first fell in love fifty-nine years ago. She would have been eighty-six that spring. Eventually, we had gone separate ways but remained friends.
Gone too at a ripe old age was Jennie Bradley, a Frenchwoman long widowed by her American husband. As a youngster, she had sat on the knee of Anatole France and had known most of France's great writers since. For many years, she had been my French literary agent and she had invited to lunch and dinner parties that she had given for me in her attractive apartment in the Isle St. Louis most of the literary and political luminaries in France.
Sylviane, with whom I had spent much of my time when I was researching my book on the fall of France in the 1960s, was working abroad for a year in an exchange program. I did have lunch with my French publisher, but the editors who had worked with me on the French edition of my books had dispersed. And I spent a pleasant weekend with Benjamin Barber, on a sabbatical from Rutgers to work on another book, and Leah, his wife, who was dancing in Paris that spring.
But for the most part, I was alone. Usually I like it that way, to be left to myself, especially in Paris. But thinking of that led me to understand the third reason for my low spirits. I was simply getting too old and too decrepit to partake any longer of the moveable feast here that Hemingway had written about and from which I had taken large portions in the heady 1920s in Paris.
To experience the great city, to appreciate it, to savor it, you had to walk…and walk…for hours; walk through the parks, up and down the boulevards and the long halls of the great museums, starting with the Louvre. You had to roam through the narrow winding streets of the Left Bank or of hilly Montmartre and along the quays of the Seine. You had to walk some distance to take in the cathedral and churches, Notre Dame, Ste. Chapelle, St. Sulpice, and the Church of St. Germain-des-Pres with its lovely eleventh-century Romanesque tower.
There were a hundred or more walks to take in Paris and another hundred in its environs. But I could no longer take them. Age and a heart condition had finally forced me, reluctantly to realize it.
I tried, though, to go on as before. I was staying at a familiar hotel just off the Boulevard St. Germain. From there I set off to roam through my old haunts, up the boulevard to St. Germain des Pres to have an aperitif on the terrace of the Deux Magots, where one could look across at the lovely old church that had the same name as the square. In my youth, I had sometimes gone in there to meditate. With its thick walls, it was cool on a hot day. During the war, I knew, the Resistance had used the church as a place to meet and as a drop for messages, and it was there that Suzanne, who later became a friend and who was a courier for the Resistance, was nabbed by the German Gestapo after being betrayed by a French collaborator. She had been frightfully tortured by the Germans, had not broken and finally had been shipped half-dead off to Ravensbrück, a Nazi concentration camp for women, where miraculously, despite further abuse by the Germans, she survived.
From the Deux Magots, I crossed the street to Lipp's, which had been an Alsatian brasserie much frequented by American writers and journalists in the old days but now was upgraded into a rather fancy restaurant. Like a lot of other places in Paris, it was no longer the same. Most of the customers seemed to be German and American tourists. The Alsatian beer and the choucroute-garnie, however, were still good. After lunch, up the rue de Rennes to the Place St. Sulpice and into the spacious church there. It had one of the finest pipe-organs in the world and when I first came to Paris, and lived around the corner in the Rue de Vaugirard, I used to drop in on a late afternoon before going to work on the Tribune to hear the renowned Marcel Dupré play. I had first met him when he came to inaugurate a new organ donated to my Iowa college by a wealthy benefactor. Dupré, of course, was no longer living and someone else was practicing on the organ.
I had gone into the church principally to rest and to catch my breath for a further excursion, but I still felt tired when I emerged. I pressed on, though, up to the Place de L'Odeon, noting that the rambling bookstalls in the archways of the State Theatre, where I had purchased my first French books, were gone. Then up the rue de Vaugirard to the sagging old Hôtel de Lisbonne, where I had lived the first three years in Paris when my salary was fifteen dollars a week. It had a few modern conveniences, not a single bath in the whole place, and only one stand-up toilet on each of its five floors, but it had character, its rooms were rather spacious and cheap and, after all, as a plaque on the façade reminded us, two great French poets, Baudelaire and Verlaine, once had lived there. The wild spirit of the mad, drunken Verlaine hung over our fair abode.
It was only a stone's throw from the hotel to the Luxembourg Garden, but when I got there I found I was too tired to meander through it. I slumped on a bench to get my breath. I had planned to walk down the Boulevard St. Michel, past the Sorbonne, and down to the Seine and then over to Notre Dame-so much of my early life had been spent along that broad avenue-but I realized I could never make it. I was exhausted. I would not be able to do much more walking in this magic city. Despondent, I hailed a taxi and returned to my hotel. A good nap, followed by a good dinner at a nearby restaurant, bucked me up, but nonetheless I felt it was time to bid farewell to this city with which I had had a love affair for more than half a century, and book a plane home.
For much of my adulthood, Europe had been the center of my life and work. Wonderful years! In many ways, the best, certainly the most adventurous, the most filled with excitement, the most meaningful, the deepest, as one lived through the rise of the totalitarian powers, the decline of the West, the advent of the Second World War, the cruelest, most destructive of all, with its slaughter of tens of millions not only at the front but at home (in the bombings), and finally the Holocaust of the European Jews.
For a journalist and an author, there had been much to write about-and to think about.
And now I was saying good-bye to it, to return to the placid life of an old man in a quiet village in the hills of the Berkshires. It had been a rough but wonderful passage through the twentieth century. My own country had grown from a second-rate, rather provincial, power to be, with the Soviet Union, the colossus of the world. I had found plenty to criticize in it, especially after it became powerful, dominating, conservative, and rich. The greed and selfishness of the well-off, the plight of the poor and the homeless, sickened me. And I was appalled at, among other things, our warm support of despotic totalitarian governments abroad if they were run by a right-wing dictator or a shabby military junta, no matter how murderous or corrupt, while determined to overthrow a dictatorship if it was left-wing. Such deviousness demeaned us.
But we could also be a generous nation, as we had shown with the Marshall Plan, which had helped rebuild a bombed-out, war-ravaged Europe after the last war. If we were erratic, we were often well-meaning. And we had sought to preserve freedom not only for ourselves but for others, if not for all. This had given me the freedom as a citizen to live as I liked and to me as both a citizen and a writer, the most precious freedom of all: to express and publish my thoughts and opinions, however unpopular and wrong. In how many countries had writers who tried to exercise that freedom been jailed!
My country had given me no public honors, but I did not seek or want any. It was enough that it had been good to me, as life had been, and fate, and the gods.
So as the tumultuous twentieth century began to wind down to its end, I remained settled in my Berkshire village, happy to live out there my allotted time, which at eighty-five could not be long. Despite the heart condition, which, after all, many old men had, and another handicap or two, I was in relative good health,[89] able still in the summer to do a little gardening and sailing, and get over to nearby Tanglewood for some classical music and over to Jacob's Pillow, also nearby, for the dance.
A year ago, as this is written, I suffered a tear in the retina of the only eye I have, and this has slowed my writing and curtailed my reading. But with the help of special lenses, I can still see enough to write and read. Even without them, I can glimpse the great outdoors, the hills and valleys and the bright blue sky above, the fields, the streams, lakes and woods, the tree-lined village streets, and from my home a harvest moon rising full blown in the dusk of autumn, a sun setting beneath a pink sky.
A few friends still survive in the area: Marge Champion, the dancer and still a ball of fire who refuses to retire or even slow down; Jim (James McGregor) Burns, the genial, thoughtful historian at nearby Williams College, among others. Inga, my elder daughter, who came to the village some years before to write, has made life easier and richer, as has Tania, my Russian friend, who recently became my bride. Linda, my younger daughter, who lives but two hours away by car, drives up, despite her busy life, with her two children, to visit and help. Tess, in New York, and I chat on the telephone and see each other at one of the children's homes at holidays, especially Christmas. Four grandchildren, two of them now grown up and scattered, have helped to keep me young.
So much life! Despite death waiting over the hill,[90] I find myself keeping too busy writing, reading, gardening, sailing, listening to music, attending the theater and the dance and chewing the fat with friends, to think of death. I wonder why so many fear it, even the great Tolstoy, for instance, who dreaded its coming and cursed it for destroying life.
I don't look forward to it. I would like to linger on a little longer, to write another book or two and a play, read more of the books there has never been time to get to and return to many I have loved. (All the plays and sonnets of Shakespeare, which I have in one volume; all the plays of the great Greek dramatists, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, the novels of Dostoyevski, Tolstoy, Dickens, Balzac, and Stendhal, the plays and short stories of Chekhov-the list is long-listen to music, not only symphonic but chamber music, my greatest love, from Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and Brahms.) To do all that-and more, including clarifying my thoughts about the history I've lived through and written about. And continuing my pursuit of Russian, which still eludes me.
There will never be enough time, I know. Death will come. And then what? A life of some kind hereafter? We do not know. There is no evidence, no proof, that there is life after death. Yet all the great religions have promised it. Even that of the Greeks, who were so skeptical, who believed above all else in Reason. Obviously, one couldn't take one's body to the hereafter. But the religions said the soul ascended to it. I had tried to imagine the soul but I could not. I have never understood it or found it. There was much, of course, beyond my paltry comprehension, beyond my imagination and vision. But try as I could, I could never bring myself to believe in a heaven and a hell. I could not prove that they did not exist nor could I prove the opposite. At the moment, I am content to wait and see.
Religion, no doubt, would have given me the faith to believe in a hereafter, but I lost it along the way. I was baptized in the Presbyterian Church and went to Sunday school and church regularly as a child. In college, the first doubts began to rise. And they grew rapidly as I went abroad as a correspondent and came into contact with other cultures, other religions. I found it increasingly difficult to believe in the very foundations of the Christianity I had been born into, the "miracles" of the virgin birth of Jesus, his resurrection, and ascension. I was filled with doubts about Jesus being the Son of God.
I suppose it was my sojourn in India and my experience with Mahatma Gandhi that caused me to begin to lose faith in my own religion. The other great religions I encountered there, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, did not recognize that Jesus was the Son of God. They had their own conception of God, which was different from ours.
I often discussed this with the Mahatma, a devout Hindu, but tolerant of other faiths, from which he drew much of his thinking, especially the Christianity of the New Testament, a work he knew well and loved. He certainly made no attempt to pry me loose from Christianity. Just the opposite. But he did try to interest me in what he called "comparative religion," in which he himself believed, and which was based on taking the best from all the religions, not just one's own. Gandhi could not believe, as some of his Christian friends tried to convince him, that he could attain salvation and go to heaven only by becoming a Christian.
It was more than I could believe [he wrote] that Jesus was the only incarnate son of God, and that only he who believed in him would have everlasting life. If God could have sons, all of us were his sons. If Jesus was like God, or God himself, then all men were like God and could be God himself.
My reason was not ready to believe literally that Jesus by his death and by his blood redeemed the sins of the world.…I could accept Jesus as a martyr, an embodiment of sacrifice and a divine teacher but not as the most perfect man ever born. His death on the Cross was a great example to the world, but that there was anything like a mysterious or miraculous virtue in it, my heart could not accept, The pious lives of Christians did not give me anything that the lives of men of other faiths had failed to give me.…Philosophically there was nothing extraordinary in Christian principles.
Thomas Jefferson, in a remarkable essay, had expressed a similar view of Christ, and this also had influenced me. (Had Jefferson lived in our time and run for president and expounded publicly that view, he never could have been elected.)
One thing that bothered me in all religions I studied was the idea of a "just and powerful God," or for the Hindus, gods. If God is just, I asked myself, then why does he permit so much human suffering: all the wars, for example, in which millions have died? Why allow the terrible massacres, of which our time has seen probably the worst? Why go along with the humiliation of the human spirit?
How, I've asked myself, could one believe in God after the Holocaust in our own day? How could a Christian worship a God who permitted Christians to perpetrate such an unspeakable crime? How could a Jew believe in his God who permitted the killing by the Nazi beasts of a good part of his race?
Albert Einstein, a Jew, who was deeply affected by the Nazi attempt to exterminate the Jews in their death camps (had he remained in Germany, he probably would have been a victim), was inclined to let God off the hook.
The idea of a Being [he wrote] who interferes in the world is absolutely impossible.…A God who rewards and punishes is unthinkable because man acts in accordance with an inner and outer necessity, and would, in the eyes of God, be as little responsible as an inanimate object for the movements it makes.
But most religions, including the Christian, did believe that God, or the gods, rewarded and punished. And most good Christians credited God for all the good in this world. I have kept wondering why they did not hold God responsible, then, for all the bad.
Arnold Toynbee, the British historian and Christian philosopher, pondered this question. "Christianity," he concluded, "does not-and cannot-explain how a God who is infinitely powerful and infinitely loving came to create a universe which turned out to be not very good." Toynbee himself, born a Christian and, judging by his writing, a very devout one, eventually became, in his words, "an ex-Christian," no longer able, he said, to believe in the virgin birth, the resurrection and ascension, or that Jesus was the Son of God.
After my experience with India, I could never believe that Christianity was the only religion, as millions of my fundamentalist compatriots did. The idea that hundreds of millions of Moslems, Hindus, and Buddhists were destined to go to hell because they were not Christians was not only absurd but repulsive. If there was an afterlife-and they believed there was-then they were due as good a reception above as Christians.
In the end, after meditating over it all my adult life, I was prepared to believe that religion, from the dawn of civilization, answered the most deeply felt need of mankind. Every society, so far as we know, had a religion, with its god or gods and goddesses. I could understand that religion offered a solace to human beings as they made their rocky, sorrowful way through life. Religion promised them a better life hereafter. With all the misery in the world, this was what millions craved. The universality of the human need for religion made me regret that I could not share it. I knew I was in a minority.
I did not care to go on as did Ernest Renan, the nineteenth-century French religious historian and author of a French classic, The Life of Jesus.
"My life," he said toward its end, "is still governed by a faith I no longer have."
I could not accept such a life for myself. The pretense and the hypocrisy would have been too much.
But if at eighty-five I faced soon departing this life without the consolation of religion and a belief in a life hereafter, I felt enriched by the poetry and the philosophy which I had found in the religions I knew.
There was one other question I sought an answer to in vain. How did the universe originate? The scientists told us that it began with gases that over hundreds of millions of years cooled and solidified into the stars and planets we know. Some say it started with a big bang. But from where and from what did the gases come? How can something be created from nothing? It became, at least for me, more a question of philosophy than of physics. Before the beginning of the formation of the universe, there must have been nothing-a great void. Then how did the gases spring up? They could not have come from nothing. I read the physicists who were trying to explain the origins of the universe. They dodged, it seemed to me, the fundamental question. Perhaps there was no answer, at least that we could understand. This was something beyond our comprehension.
One thing we did know: how puny was our tiny Earth in the great cosmos, a mere speck, actually. And for thousands of years, the inhabitants of Earth had believed that our planet was the center of the universe! Was the universe limited in its extent? Or did it stretch into the infinite? We do not know. And if there are no limits, how can we even imagine the infinite, the boundless?
Like everyone else, I suppose, I did not give much thought to all these things when I was busy trying to make it in a materialistic world. Only as I grew older, and found time for meditation and contemplation, did these matters occupy my thoughts.
Whatever happens now, and whenever, I am glad to have lived through the turbulent, tumultuous twentieth century, with all its tremendous changes, despite all its upheavals and violence. And as an American, whose country came of age in his lifetime and, despite all its shortcomings, achieved greatness.
It was a complex fate, maybe, as Henry James said, to be an American and one, I realize, not especially admired by some in other countries and other cultures, who perceived us as "the ugly Americans." Still, as I wrote in the last line of the general introduction, I am glad it was mine.
聚合中文网 阅读好时光 www.juhezwn.com
小提示:漏章、缺章、错字过多试试导航栏右上角的源