CHAPTER 1
I was fifty-six when the Third Reich book was first published in 1960, and fifty-eight when the to-do over its appearance here and abroad subsided and I could turn to other things: principally to the next book and to figuring out my working and personal life now that fortune, after so long a drought, had smiled on us.
Writers do not retire at sixty-five-though some think they should-but that age nevertheless is a milestone, and for me it loomed not so far ahead. With some money in the bank, we need no longer worry about having enough to pay the rent, the groceries, and the tuition of two girls in college.
I could scarcely realize our good fortune. It had come so suddenly and unexpectedly-against all the odds and the predictions of everyone. It took time to adjust to it, though the adjusting was pleasant. It also took time to wind down from the grinding pace I had set year after year. To help me slow down, Bennett Cerf had phoned one day and suggested I do a couple of juvenile books for Random House's Landmark Series for youngsters between ten and fourteen. A child's biography of Adolf Hitler to start with.
It was not so easy as he assured me it would be. I suffered the first writer's block of my life, sitting for days with a blank piece of paper in my typewriter, unable to create a line. How did you write for young people? You couldn't be condescending. You had to respect them. But you had to keep it simple enough for them to understand. I read and reread other Landmark books by my friends to try to find out how it was done. John Gunther had written one about Alexander, another about Caesar. Pearl Buck had done one about Martin Luther. But these were authentic heroes, figures in history youngsters looked up to. I didn't want them looking up to Hitler or seeing in him a hero. He was a genius, but an evil one. Finally I got the knack and did the book. And for good measure, to completely unwind, I wrote a second book-about the sinking of the Bismarck, on which I had accumulated some documentary material for the Third Reich book and then not found the space to use.
***
And then I succumbed, briefly, to the temptations of Hollywood.
In my diary of January 1, 1961, reviewing the past year's turn of good fortune, I had noted: "It even looks as though we might get a movie sale."
Up until then my agent had advised me that this was not likely. "They almost never buy a work of nonfiction," he said, "and I do not expect them to take this."
But "they" had.
"Unfortunately, for peanuts," my agent later lamented. He had been so surprised when an offer came from MGM, of all studios, that he had taken what they first offered, which was "a disgrace," he said. But at that time, after so many lean years, the offer-and I have forgotten exactly what it was-seemed big enough to me. And it would be interesting, I thought, to see if Hollywood could do a film about so vast and terrifying a subject.
"They'll do plenty," my friends said. "You won't recognize your book when they get through with it, especially at MGM."
But I felt I had some protection. Two friends, who were quite serious about such matters, were to produce and direct. Both had made a mark in the theater, and one had also done well in the films. The producer was John Houseman, a veteran of the stage and lately head of the American Shakespeare Theater at Stratford, Connecticut. He had also directed a number of films. The director was George Roy Hill, who recently had done two plays by Tennessee Williams on Broadway and was regarded as "a comer" in the theater world. He had not, I believe, had any experience in films but he was anxious to try his hand at them.
I was pretty sure that with Houseman and Hill running things, we would get at least a serious film out of the book. MGM had never made a documentary. This came out at our first meeting with the head of the studio, a man who was trying to fill the shoes of the famous Louis B. Mayer. It was my first encounter with a Hollywood movie mogul. His office, big as a barn, was painted a garish pink. He kept us waiting just long enough, I suppose he thought, to impress us. He was more than cordial as we shook hands. He was effusive.
"My dear Mr. Shirer, you've ruined my sleep for the last three nights. You can ask my wife. I tell you, I've sat up through three nights reading The Rise and Fall. I couldn't put it down. But it's long. It left me no time to sleep. It's…"
He turned to pick up the phone, which had just buzzed.
Jack Houseman, sitting at my side, whispered in my ear: "Don't believe a word of it. The son-of-a-bitch can't read!"
Turning again to us after a few crisp words on the phone, the great man resumed. "Yes, sir, it's a great book. If I may say so, I think it's a masterpiece. And MGM is proud to have bought it…"
"For a song, my agent says," I wanted to break in to say, but I resisted.
"Now, Mr. Shirer," he went on, "you're in good hands here. Jack Houseman has made some wonderful films for MGM. And we welcome you, Mr. Hill," he added, turning to my director, "to Hollywood. We've already heard of the great things you've done in the theater."
He paused to screw up his face.
"As a matter of fact, Mr. Shirer, I have to tell you that MGM has never made a documentary. We've made great films, but they were not documentaries. Your masterpiece cries out for a great documentary. That's why I'm happy to see you in such good hands. If anyone can do it, Jack Houseman and George Roy Hill can do it.
"Thank you very much for coming in." He rose and dismissed us. Already, Houseman informed me, he had approved an initial appropriation of one million dollars. I was to write the script. A little later we would scour the archives in Washington and in Europe for new film. I was sure there were masses of it that had never been shown.
The next few days I was initiated into a familiar Hollywood scene. The three of us would sit around a swimming pool, usually at the swank hotel where I was staying, and discuss the picture we would do and the script I would write. Often toward the end of the afternoon we would adjourn to John's place on Malibu Beach for further talks and further drinks. It was fun, but so far as developing a script, a pleasant waste of time. Finally I moved out to a motel at Palm Springs to really get into the script, and John and George flew off to Washington to see what kind of film was available there.
Later when I returned to Hollywood I met some of the celebrities at various parties and occasionally on location. Since in twenty years in Europe there had been very few American films to see and since I had been too busy, or too uninterested, after my return to see many more, I was woefully ignorant of the "stars" and what they had played in. This could prove mildly embarrassing. I would be introduced to some obviously important actor or actress. I might recognize the names but I had never seen them on film. Through some lapse, for instance, I had never seen Judy Garland on the screen and had scarcely heard of her. But one day when I went out to Universal Studios to watch Stanley Kramer shooting Judgment at Nuremberg, she was sitting in the witness box playing the part of a Berlin prostitute and being questioned by an actor I did know, Dick Widmark, who was playing the prosecuting attorney at Nuremberg. After the scene Dick introduced us. She said she wanted to talk. I wondered what I could say. I couldn't say the usual thing in Hollywood: "You were perfectly wonderful in such-and-such picture." So I waited for her to begin. She did not hesitate. I found her most natural and pleasant. She wanted to know what Berlin prostitutes were like. How did they dress? How did they walk? Talk? And so forth. Actually, I couldn't remember.
The film had an all-star cast, so on that one day I got in a word with several persons who were obviously notable film personalities. Spencer Tracy, playing the part of a judge at Nuremberg, wanted to know how the actual judges there had looked and spoken and gestured. I liked him at once. Burt Lancaster, at one point a bit miffed at the slow pace of the shooting, wanted to know if the actual proceedings at Nuremberg could possibly have gone so slowly. "I'm getting bored!" he shouted at Kramer.
After dispensing a million dollars, MGM gave up on the film of the Third Reich book. John Houseman and George Roy Hill took off to greener pastures. In the end MGM sold the rights to David Wolper, who made of it a very good documentary film. It was an impossible task, really, to compress the history of Nazi Germany into a two-hour film. But Wolper did wonders. It is still shown in colleges and universities and occasionally on television.
I never tried to write for the films again. Hollywood was not my dish. It was unreal. I could not connect with it.
***
I returned from the make-believe land, anxious to get started on a new book. But what book? Doubleday had been after me to do one on my time with Gandhi in India. After having been immersed so long in writing about Europe, it seemed a welcome change. The idea for it had long been buzzing in the back of my mind. In fact, there had been a sort of draft in the autobiographical Indian novel I had written the year we took off in Spain. But that book-my first-had not come off. It was really terrible, and I had put it aside when I returned to newspaper reporting in 1934. Now in 1961, after the long years on the Third Reich book, I felt receptive to Doubleday's prodding, and I signed a contract to write the book. But after looking through my papers, I realized I was not yet ready to recount the experience with Gandhi and with the revolution he led that had brought India independence. It needed more reflection. The Mahatma had made such a tremendous impact on me. I could not yet get it down in words. I must find another subject.
I must also, I knew, face up to the state of my personal life, which seemed almost to have been held in abeyance during the long years of toil on the German book. There had been tensions between Tess and me, largely, I thought, over finances, or rather the lack of them. Now there was no longer any excuse for that. We need no longer worry or quarrel about where the next meal would come from. We could relax and be happy.
Linda had gone up to Radcliffe in September 1959, to join her sister there, just as I had finished the German book. For the first time in the last twenty-one years of our married life there were no children around the house. Tess and I were again alone, and this presented problems that neither of us had given much thought to.
The next June, Inga graduated from college and married.
Wed., Aug. 3, 1960. Farm. Eileen Inga was graduated from Radcliffe College on June 15 and married three days later,…at the Church of St. Mark's in the Bourie in New York….
The rector, Episcopal, was Michael Allen, son of Jay and Ruth, whom Tess and I had known since he was a tot (in Europe) and who gave up journalism to go into the ministry….
St. Mark's is an old run-down church, the second oldest in New York. Inga had liked the look of it when she was doing social work there some years ago….
It had been founded by Peter Stuyvesant, and the old one-legged Dutchman, who had ruled New Amsterdam so sternly, was, I believe, buried there.
The ceremony, I noted, went off nicely, though our little bridal procession could not get into the church until Michael, I, and a few brawny friends of the bride and groom from Harvard cleared out a half-dozen Bowery bums who were sleeping under the roof that covered the entrance. We did it gently and I gave each of them a couple of dollars to buy a beer and a sandwich around the corner.
And so a rather closely-knit family of four is now only three.…It seems only yesterday that Inga was a tot, fooling about the place with her younger sister, even more a tot. And soon-in three years-Lin will graduate from college and probably marry. And a cycle will have been completed, one that absorbs most of your adult life. And we will be left to ourselves again, as we were in the beginning. Then we will be grandparents-a second but outer cycle-and shortly thereafter pass along. It seems so short, this life-span upon the earth. To me at 56, despite all the well-filled years, life seems scarcely to have begun. There is so much I would like to do. But not much time remains and most of the doings, I begin to realize, will never get done.
Learning Russian, for example. Now, I realized, I probably would never learn that subtle and beautiful language. I had wanted to, ever since I had first read in English translation the great nineteenth-century Russian novelists, Gogol, Dostoyevski, Tolstoy, and Turgenev (and the poetry of Pushkin, the short stories and plays of Chekhov) in the high-school days in Iowa. George Kennan, when he was in the U.S. embassy in Berlin at the beginning of the war, had told me I would never really understand the great Russian writers unless I read them in the original. I had begun in Paris in the mid-twenties, exchanging English for Russian lessons with an attractive young Russian woman then studying at the Sorbonne. But I had had to spend most of my spare time first learning French. My job as a correspondent had taken me away from Paris and from this teacher, and there was no time or opportunity in the next hectic years as a roving reporter to find another.
More important than learning Russian were the books I still wanted to write: about the experience in India with Gandhi, about the fall of France in 1940, about World War II, about the future of Europe, still recovering from the devastations of the war, and finally about my own country, now that I had been back long enough to get the feel of it. And I wanted to return to doing novels, despite my lack of success in this field, and I wanted to write some plays, though the three or four I had done had been worse than I expected. Perhaps if there were time, I could write some poetry, having got some very bad verse out of my system in the Paris days.
And I wanted to make my marriage survive, overcoming the difficulties of recent years that had been caused by a number of unfortunate things besides our poverty, including the frequent separations that stemmed from work and the war, and my own occasional wanderings.[62]
***
Tilly Losch had come into my life at the end of the first part of the war after I came home from Berlin. It was the late summer of 1941; my family was still on the Cape and I had returned to New York to resume broadcasting. One warm August evening just before my 11 P.M. broadcast at CBS, John Gunther, Tola Litvak, and Frank Capra, the latter two noted film directors, had dropped by my cubbyhole of an office and asked if they could sit in the studio to hear the news show and then take me out for a drink. In their tow was an extremely attractive-looking woman of about forty whose soft, slight Viennese accent I detected at the very instant she was being introduced. It was Tilly Losch.
She had already become a legend in Vienna when I began working there in 1929. She had been, people said, the most dazzling prima ballerina the venerable State Opera had seen in ages. A dynamic dancer and a great beauty. She had "retired" early, shortly before I arrived in Vienna, and gone on to London where she married a rich Anglo-American there and resumed dancing. But this time it was in popular musicals. It was a new and second career for her and she was again a great success.
That summer of 1929, I had had to leave Vienna for a long assignment in London. Zora, a Hungarian friend I had met in the Austrian capital, joined me in Britain and shortly after her arrival we went to see Miss Losch in a Noel Coward musical, This Year of Grace. Zora had seen her dance in Vienna shortly after the end of the war and raved about her.
"You must see her!" she said, but it took no urging. I had heard so much about her that first winter in Vienna.
Tilly Losch turned out to be the star of the Coward show. In fact, later in his autobiography, Coward wrote that she had saved it. She was the most dynamic dancer I had seen since Isadora Duncan. And much more beautiful. At the end of the show, Zora, noting my enthusiasm, suggested I go backstage and meet Miss Losch.
"She will appreciate your telling her how bowled over you were by her," Zora teased me. But I was much too timid to go backstage. A few days later there was a lengthy piece in one of the weeklies, handsomely illustrated with photographs, about Miss Losch and her career. I clipped it out, wondering at my hero-worship of this fascinating woman. I was twenty-five and in love with Zora, I thought, and here I was falling madly for someone I had not even met, and probably never would. I never quite recovered from that first fever.
And now suddenly and unexpectedly, out of the blue, on this hot August night of 1941 in New York, we were introduced for the first time. In an instant I felt myself falling in love with her.
They listened to my news broadcast and then we went off to "21" for a drink and a bite to eat. I was enthralled. Tilly and I sat at one end of the table engrossed in talk, oblivious of the others. I became aware of my state when John Gunther, rather annoyed, suddenly yelled at us and asked if it wasn't time that we joined them-he had a story he said that he thought we wouldn't want to miss.
It was an exciting nightcap for me. In the week that followed Tilly and I exchanged rather formal notes, and she invited my wife and me to tea when Tess returned from the Cape. I thought the two women, being Viennese, would get along well, but they did not. I was being naive, of course. Tess, who was much shrewder in such things than I, apparently detected instantly the electricity sparkling between Tilly and me. She did not like it. And she began to object to the three of us continuing to meet.
So the two of us began to meet, and rather quickly Tilly Losch and I became close to one another. Two years later when I went off to England for a time to cover the U.S. Eighth Air Force, then beginning its daylight bombing of Germany, we started to talk of marriage. She was divorcing her second husband, an English lord, she said. She asked me when I got to London to urge her lawyers to speed it up. But love her as I did, I would not break up my family for her. Linda was not quite two and Inga was only five. Whatever our mounting differences, Tess had stood by me over a long and difficult time. I remembered the dedication only two years before I had made in Berlin Diary.
To Tess, Who Shared So Much.
Tilly did not like my stand. She said she wanted all or nothing. We began to have our problems. I preferred to drift along, as before. This was unsatisfactory to the two women closest to me. In my foolishness I thought them both unreasonable. I was stubbornly determined though to keep my family together, but I would not give up seeing Miss Losch. Sometimes she seemed to solve my problem by breaking off. But there was always a making-up. And so it continued for the next few years, with much hurt to each of us three and with Tess so resentful as time went on that life at home became more and more difficult. As we have seen, that life was not improved by our bickering over my difficulties in making a living while I was at work on the Third Reich book. Or by the strain of trying to write that opus.
Not long after I finished that writing I finally broke for good with Tilly. It was a terrible wrench for me. But I decided that it was the only way I could save my marriage. By this time I was sure it would not be much of a blow to Tilly. Though she was always very mysterious about her life, she was becoming more and more involved, I felt, with other men, for which, given my own indecisiveness, I did not blame her. I still loved her, but it had become obvious to us both that we would never make it together. She was tired of waiting for me.
For years there was no further contact between us. We dropped out of each other's lives. Then one day early in 1975 I received a telegram from Tilly. "PLEASE CALL ME," it said. "SITUATION SERIOUS."
I was then living in the Berkshires in western Massachusetts and I took the first plane I could get for New York. Tilly seemed desperate. A doctor had diagnosed cancer but she said she did not have much confidence in him. She wanted me to find her another doctor. I phoned around to friends and found her one.
Tilly had changed a great deal. Much of the fire had gone out. Her face looked waxen but she was still beautiful, I thought. And whatever men had come into her life, she seemed terribly lonely. There was no attempt to bridge the gulf between us since I had last seen her. But there were no recriminations either. We spoke lovingly but not sentimentally of the past, remembering some of the good times.
"It seems so long ago," she said, sadly.
"It was," I said.
"We were rather silly sometimes," she said, a wan smile gently breaking out on her face.
"Maybe it was because we were in love."
"Yes." She whispered the word.
There was a silence. She seemed lost in her thoughts.
"I've often wondered," she said, "why we didn't make it."
"We almost did," I said. I thought it better to leave it at that. She knew. But perhaps she did not remember. Or want to.
Tilly Losch died on Christmas Eve, 1975, in New York. Next morning as our family gathered at the home of one of my daughters in a nearby suburb to celebrate the holiday, Tess broke the news to me. She handed me a copy of the New York Times folded over to the obit page. The report of Tilly's death-and life-ran nearly three columns under the headline
Tilly Losch, Exotic Dancer, Is Dead
One forgot how varied, as well as distinguished a career she had had-not only as a dancer but as an actress, a choreographer and a painter. The Times obit recalled it. After her years in Vienna as a prima ballerina she had played at Salzburg in Max Reinhardt's production of Everyman, had choreographed and danced in his production of A Midsummer Night's Dream, and danced in The Seven Deadly Sins by Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht, which George Balanchine choreographed in Paris in 1934.
In her post-Vienna days she had also danced with Harold Kreuzberg at the Berlin State Opera and, in a lighter vein, on Broadway, with Fred and Adele Astaire in The Band Wagon, a performance that moved Brooks Atkinson, the Times drama critic, to write that "Tilly Losch raised musical show dancing to the level of a fine art."
In a state of some shock I stumbled through the Times obit. Though we had been separated for years and had only this year resumed seeing each other-and then very occasionally-I felt a tremendous loss. And I felt remorse. I had gone off to Europe with a friend and spent most of the summer of 1975 there. I had not called Tilly on returning to see how she was. This was all the worse, since I knew she was stricken with cancer. The doctor I had recommended had confirmed it. That fall I did not call either. My personal life at that moment was in a mess. I didn't want to see anyone. A fortnight before Christmas I sent Tilly a Christmas card with a letter suggesting that we get together soon. A few days before Christmas I phoned her at her apartment in New York. There was no answer. I telephoned a New York florist and ordered a Christmas bouquet sent to her. I had no idea that she was in the hospital, dying.
Tilly Losch was buried in a public park in her beloved Salzburg in Austria. On the fireplace mantel in my living room I keep a photograph a friend took of her tombstone. Beside the engraved figure of a dancer, taken from a drawing Tilly once did, are the words:
TILLY LOSCH
NOV. 15, 1903-DECEMBER 24, 1975
DANCER ACTRESS ARTIST
The wording is in English rather than in her native German, the language of Salzburg. I'm sure she wrote it herself.
***
The final break with Tilly, fifteen years before her death, did not bring the expected relief at home. Perhaps it was too late.
CHAPTER 2
Through it all one had to work. I finally hit upon the book I wanted to write and got down to work on it.
The idea for it had come to me first twenty-one years before, in that sad June of 1940 when as an American correspondent with the German army I came into conquered Paris and witnessed the fall of France. It was an awesome spectacle.
In the space of six weeks during that spring and early summer of weather more lovely than anyone in France could remember since the end of the previous war, this great democracy, the world's second largest empire, one of Europe's Great Powers and perhaps its most civilized and possessing what was supposed to be one of the finest armies in the world, went down to utter military defeat, leaving its proud citizens dazed and then completely demoralized.
"It was the most terrible collapse," a French historian concluded, "in all the long story of our national life." In the fallen capital on June 17, I noted in my diary:
I have a feeling that what we're seeing here is the complete breakdown of French society-a collapse of the army, of government, of the morale of the people. It is almost too tremendous to believe.
On the roads south of Paris, between the Seine and the Loire rivers, and beyond, there were now some eight million panic-stricken refugees, fleeing for their lives to keep out of the hands of the Germans. Those who were old enough, remembered the brutal treatment at the hands of their old enemy in the last war, when thousands of French hostages had been shot.[63] Of Paris's five million inhabitants, only 700,000 had remained by the time I arrived. The rest, the police said, had fled.
No provision, the correspondents reported, had been made for food, drink, or lodging for so vast a throng. Those who had no cars slept at night in the fields next to roads. By day they scrounged for food, and in their desperation some of them pillaged, and many fought for water. Along the roadside a few peasants sold food and even water-at highly inflated prices. But this took care of only a few.
By this time there was little left of the vaunted French army. A million men had been taken prisoner after the Germans had broken through and encircled them with their swarms of tanks. The rest were retreating southward, mostly in disorganized ranks. Along the congested highways the demoralized soldiers blended into the streams of refugees. Many of them threw away their arms and uniforms, hoping to avoid being made prisoners of war and shipped to Germany. Some of the top generals were already pressing the government to give up and sue for peace. General headquarters, moving south nearly every night and reduced to chaos, had little contact with the crumbling remains of the retreating army.
The government itself, like the Army High Command, was in disarray. Since fleeing Paris it could hardly function at all. Its members had arrived at the Loire on June 11 and scattered to various châteaux in the region of Tours, apparently to safeguard against the whole government being wiped out by one little bombing. But there was little communication between cabinet members, between them and the army, between the government and the outside world. How could there be?
Most of the châteaux had only one antiquated telephone on the premises, usually located in the downstairs toilet and not in good working order and connected only with the nearest village, where the operator insisted on shutting down for two hours at lunch and for good at 6 P.M.
The only source of outside news for the traveling French Foreign Office was a portable radio which the British ambassador had thought to bring along. Apparently no one in the Foreign Office had thought of such a thing. When its undersecretary called on the president of the Republic at the Château de Cangé, he found the nation's chief magistrate, as he reported later, "entirely isolated, without news from the premier, without news from Supreme Headquarters, depressed, overwhelmed. He knew nothing."
Parliament, which might have helped to sustain the wavering government and encouraged it to fight on, even if it had to be from the colonies in North Africa, could not be assembled in the midst of the headlong flight. Many of its members had lit out for Bordeaux, which the government and High Command reached on June 14, the day the German army entered Paris.
Two days later Premier Paul Reynaud, who wanted to move the government to North Africa to continue the war from there, resigned. General Maxime Weygand, commander in chief, and Marshal Henri Pétain, the hero of Verdun in the First World War, had gained control of the cabinet. They were demanding the government ask for an armistice. This it did early the next morning, June 17. By that time Pétain was in as premier and General Weygand as his minister of defense.
I got the news the next day. German army engineers had set up loudspeakers in the vast place de la Concorde:
Paris, June 18-Marshal Pétain has asked for an armistice! [I noted in my diary.] The Parisians, already dazed by all that has happened, can scarcely believe it.…I stood in a throng of French men and women…when the news first came. They were almost struck dead…Pétain surrendering! Pourquoi? No one appeared to have the heart for an answer.
The end for France now came swiftly. I kept noting it down in my diary.
Paris, June 19. The Armistice is to be signed at Compiègne! In the wagon-lit coach of Marshal Foch that witnessed the signing of another armistice on November 11, 1918 in Compiègne Forest.
I went out to Compiègne that afternoon and watched German Army engineers work merrily at demolishing one wall of the museum where the Armistice car had been preserved. Before I left they had finished their job and were inching the car out to the old siding outside.
Paris, June 22 (midnight) The Armistice has been signed!
France had taken itself out of the war. Only Great Britain now stood out against Hitler.
Less than three weeks later, on July 10, 1940, the French National Assembly, frightened by the Germans and by their own new leaders, Pétain, Weygand, and Pierre Laval, voted to abolish itself and the Third Republic and replace it with a dictatorship that shabbily tried, with the backing of a surprisingly large number of Frenchmen, to ape that of the conquering Germans.
By that time, July 19, I had returned with heavy heart to my post in Berlin. With France out of the war, there was no military action for the moment. I had time to ponder the fall of France. How, I wondered, had it happened, and so swiftly? How was it possible? What were the flaws in this great nation and in these gifted people that had brought them to such a low and pitiful state? What had really happened to the French army, which had held off the Germans for four years the last time and finally, with the help of the British and, at the end, the Americans, triumphed over them? Had the French truly fought, as they had between 1914 and 1918? I myself had seen little sign of it. The German armored columns, which had simply driven through the French, had moved too fast to catch up with.
Who was responsible for the quick collapse of the army and the government? In the first instance, was it the generals, who had prepared and led the troops so badly? Or the politicians, as the Fascists at Vichy were beginning to charge, who had failed to provide the army with the necessary arms-the planes and tanks which for the Germans had spelled the victory? Or could a good deal of the blame be put on the French people themselves, who, as the defeatists on the right were beginning to say, had gone soft under the "godless" Republican regime? What about the right, with its antipathy to the Republic and its democracy, its sympathy with the totalitarian dictatorships? Or the Communist left, which had shamefully followed the directions of the Kremlin, even when, as with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939, they opposed France's vital interests? Did the fall of France prove, as Laval and his henchmen were now saying, that the democracies were doomed and that they could not match the dictatorships? Was Western democracy lost? Was Nazism, as Anne Lindbergh would come to believe, judging by her book of that name, "the wave of the future"?
Maybe, I thought, France's fall was inevitable. The price it paid for victory in 1918 was too high-nearly a million and a half Frenchmen killed in battle-to enable it to recover sufficiently to oppose the more numerous and more highly industrialized Germans so soon on anything like equal terms. Perhaps if the British had contributed as much as they had in the first war, the result would have been different. And if the Americans had come in time, as they had in 1917.
Sitting in Berlin that dismal late summer of 1940, a time of heartbreak for me, I pondered these questions. I had lived and worked in France for many years. I had come to love it. It was my second home.[64] I had learned its language, absorbed some of its culture, studied its history, and as an American correspondent reported daily on what it was up to. When I arrived in 1925, France was the greatest power on the Continent. Its army, which had borne the brunt of the fighting against Germany between 1914 and 1918, had no equal in Europe-or in the world. It stood watch on the Rhine. It guaranteed France's hegemony in Europe. The devastated towns and cities, roads and railways had been rebuilt. The economy was recovering. Germany, the old enemy, which twice, in 1871 and in 1914, had attacked France, was on its knees. For Frenchmen the future seemed bright.
That had been the way it was when I first left the country for other assignments in 1929. But I returned often to Paris in the following years, and in 1934 spent most of the year there. By then France had drastically changed-for the worse. It had become a house divided. Frenchmen were lambasting each other, in the streets, in the press, in Parliament. Rancor and intolerance poisoned the air.
I came back to Paris too after France and Britain had sold out the Czechs at Munich in 1938. To my horror, most French welcomed the sorry deed, arguing that it had saved them from another terrible war. They were now hopelessly ready, it seemed to me, for peace at any price. Still, when the war came in September 1940, I was sure that the French, as they always had, would fight to the last to defend their country. They would be outraged by this third German attack in little more than half a century. But this had not happened.
This pondering about the French was cut short for the moment in August that year when the Germans took us up to the Channel to cover what they thought would be the invasion of Britain. Waiting for the invasion that never took place, I began to think of what I would do if this war ever came to an end. Maybe, I thought, if I could dig up the material and achieve some understanding, I would do a book on the fall of France. It was one of the great dramas and, to me, one of the great tragedies of the twentieth century. There would be a second book to write. On the rise and fall of the Third Reich. Perhaps, though, you could write only the first half of that story. Nazi Germany had not fallen. In fact, there seemed no prospect at all of that. It was now the master of most of the old Continent-from the North Cape of Norway to the Pyrenees on the Franco-Spanish border, from the French Atlantic coast to the Vistula in Poland. The French were finished, for the time being anyway. But the Germans were at the height of their power.
***
Absorbed though I had been in writing books about the recent past and scrounging for a living, I had tried to keep up with what was going on in the world, noting developments usually in my diary, filing away newspaper clips about them, listening to the evening news on radio, and then TV, and cursing or rejoicing or wondering as the case might be. After a quarter of a century of reporting events firsthand, I was now a more distant observer. But my passion for following the news remained. Sometimes it involved a personal friend.
Martha Dodd was a good friend of mine from our days in Berlin where her father, Professor William E. Dodd, a noted historian at the University of Chicago, was American ambassador. I got to know the family well and liked it very much. It was solid as a rock and closely knit. Dodd was a southerner, with the courtly manners of the South, a fine historian's mind, and a liberal outlook on life that had made him a friend and a mentor of Franklin Roosevelt, who had named him to the Berlin post. I admired him for the way he stood up to Adolf Hitler. I appreciated the support he gave me. Bill Dodd, his son, was struggling to get his Ph.D. at the University of Berlin. Martha, not long out of college and a brief stint on the Chicago Tribune, my old paper, was the joy of the family. Attractive and vivacious, well read and an aspiring writer, she was a popular figure in Berlin and made many friends and contacts that were helpful to her father in his mission.
Two of her closest friends turned out to be prominent Nazis, Putzi Hanfstaengl, Hitler's party foreign press secretary, and Rolf Diels, the sinister head of the Prussian Secret Police. A third friend was Colonel Ernst Udet, a much decorated flyer from the First World War and after 1933 a brilliant achiever in building up the Luftwaffe under Göring. Of Prince Louis Ferdinand, eldest son of the crown prince, Martha would write: "He was one of the most interesting men I was to know in Germany and one of my dearest friends…."[65]
She saw, of course, a good many Germans who did not like Hitler-the ambassador was often host to them and it was at his home that I met a number of them. And though, as she admitted, she had been a little naïve politically when she arrived raw and inexperienced out of Chicago and thought she had an open mind about Nazism, she soon matured. On the whole she shared her father's liberalism and his growing hatred and fear of Fascism during her four years in Germany. I do not recall her ever expressing much enthusiasm for Communism, even after she visited the Soviet Union, even after her friendship with a Russian diplomat at the Soviet embassy, who was much liked by most of the American correspondents in Berlin, who resisted his charming way of trying to convert them. Years later, after the war, when Martha and I ran into each other occasionally in New York or Connecticut, I do not remember her even mentioning the subject of Communism. Nor did her husband, Alfred Stern, a former Chicago businessman, whom she had married on her return. They would talk of liberal causes they were interested in. Alfred seemed almost apolitical, interested more in the market and economics than in politics. Part of his career had been in public housing.
In the light of all that, I was all the more flabbergasted by what now happened.
One crisp evening in 1953, Tess and I ran into Martha and her husband during the intermission of a Broadway play. We had not seen them in some time. So we agreed to meet after the theater for a snack and a drink at a nearby restaurant and catch up on each other's news. Actually, during the repast, they said little of what they were up to. We talked mostly of old times in Berlin. Since Alfred had not been there, he was rather silent. He seemed a little preoccupied. Martha was her usual self, I thought, vivacious, warm, and charming. And relaxed. We parted at midnight, promising, as we always did, to get together again in the not-too-distant future.
A couple of mornings later, while I was having an early breakfast with the children before they caught their school bus and glancing as we talked at the front page of the New York Times, my eyes caught a headline that struck me dumb. Martha Dodd and Alfred Stern, it said, had been charged with spying for the Soviet Union and had fled the country-presumably for Mexico.
I had hardly bundled the children off to the school bus and returned to reread the amazing story about my old friend, which I could not believe, when the doorbell rang. Two young men flashed their FBI badges, showed their identification cards when I asked for them, and said they had to talk to me. I took them up to the second-floor living room, which overlooked the East River.
"Did you know Martha Dodd?" one of them immediately asked.
"Very well."
"How well, would you say?"
"Very well, as I said. Her parents, especially her father, the eminent historian and our ambassador in Berlin when I was there, were close friends of mine. Martha, too. I was very fond of Martha Dodd."
"You were fond of Martha Dodd?"
"Very."
"Do you know that she stands accused, along with her husband, of espionage for the Soviet Union?"
"I was just reading about it in the Times when you gentlemen rang my doorbell. It astounded me. I cannot believe it."
"You can't believe it?" My interrogator looked shocked. "Why?" he asked.
"Because it's the last thing in the world I would expect her to do."
"She was a Communist, wasn't she?"
"Not to my knowledge."
"You didn't know she was a Communist?"
"No. Never."
One of the agents took out of his pocket a small looseleaf notebook and started to flip the pages over rapidly. On each page there seemed to be a woman's photograph.
"I would like you, sir," he said, "to identify Martha Dodd, if you can. Just stop me when you think you see her photograph." He began to turn the pages rapidly, the photos flying by.
"Gentlemen," I said. "Can't we cut the comedy? I told you I knew Martha Dodd rather well." I grabbed their portfolio, or whatever it was, flipped through the pages of photographs, found Martha's, and identified it.
"You say that's her?"
"I say that's she, yes."
There was a moment's silence. Then one of the men turned quickly to me, eyed me closely for a moment, his eyes squinting.
"Have you seen the Sterns recently?"
"As a matter of fact, I have."
"When? Where?"
By this time I realized that the FBI must have been tailing Martha and Alfred. After all, this could be a capital case. Congress had passed a law providing the death penalty for espionage. The Rosenbergs had gone to the electric chair at Sing Sing on just such a charge-spying for the Soviet Union. My two questioners knew perfectly well when and where I had very recently seen my friends.
"Can't we really cut the comedy?" I said again. "I'm sure you know the answer to that question. But I'll give it anyway. My wife and I ran into Martha and her husband at the theater here in New York two or three evenings ago. We talked with them in the lobby during the intermission and, since we hadn't seen each other in some time, agreed to have a snack and a drink at a nearby restaurant after the theater."
"What restaurant?"
Though Tess and I had often gone there after the theater, I couldn't recall the name.
"Was it the Blue Ribbon?"
"I think that was the name of it. It's on Forty-fourth Street, I think, just east of Broadway."
"So the four of you went to this restaurant. What did you do there?"
The questions were getting more and more idiotic.
"We ate."
"What else?"
"We drank…beer."
"Yes?"
"And we talked."
"What did you talk about?"
"Of old coins…and the weather…," I started to say.
"Tell us frankly what you talked about," one of the agents asked.
"I really can't recall exactly," I said. "I think we talked mostly of old times in Berlin."
"In Berlin? What were you doing in Berlin?"
"It's really no secret, gentlemen. I mean, I was not there as a spy or anything like that."
The ignoramuses obviously had not read my books. The illiterates!
"I was an American foreign correspondent in Berlin," I said.
"And you knew Martha Dodd and her husband in Berlin?"
"I knew Martha and her parents and brother. Her father, as I told you, was our American ambassador in Berlin."
The louts! Couldn't they even get that straight?
"I did not know Alfred Stern there."
"You did not know her husband?"
"No. He was not in Berlin. I believe they married after she returned to America. But surely the FBI knows all that-and a lot more that I don't know."
"We're asking you!" one of the louts said, trying to be sharp, I suppose.
"You knew that Alfred Stern was a Communist, didn't you?"
"No. I knew he had been a businessman and probably still was. I didn't know him well. But I'm sure he was not a Communist."
"And you claim you didn't know Martha Dodd was a Communist?"
"I'm making no claims, gentlemen. I've told you what I know and what I don't know. And I think this has gone on long enough. If you have any more serious questions, shoot. Otherwise I shall bid you goodday. I would like to get to work."
Finally they left, leaving me to wonder-and not for the first time-why J. Edgar Hoover didn't recruit more knowledgeable men. Was it perhaps because he didn't want to?
Tess, when I told her of what had happened, could not believe it either. She, too, had known the Dodds very well and with her Viennese charm and beauty she had been a great favorite of theirs.
"Is there anything you know about Martha from our Berlin days, or from the few times we've seen them here since we returned, that would make you even faintly suspect that she could be what she is accused of being?" I put it to Tess.
"Absolutely not," she said.
***
Martha and her husband moved on quickly from Mexico, where they may have feared extradition, to Cuba and from there to Prague. Next, I heard, they went to the Soviet Union but, apparently not liking it there, returned to Prague where they settled down. It was from there, some years after her flight and our after-theater repast, that Martha began writing me. The correspondence broke off when they returned to Cuba for seven years-from 1963 to 1970-and resumed desultorily when they went back to Prague and settled there for good. For years her letters-judging by the envelopes-were opened by both the Czech and American censors. I assumed my letters to her got the same treatment. I suppose the FBI took a dim view of my corresponding with one indicted on so serious a charge (formal indictments had been handed down in 1957). But I considered Martha innocent until proven guilty-that was the law in our country.
From what I knew of her I could not conceive of her spying for the Soviet Union. What possibly could she, or Alfred Stern, know that would interest the Russians? The couple seemed to live a quiet life. Later I would learn a little more about the accusations. The Sterns were charged mainly with being couriers for Soviet espionage in this country, using their home in Ridgefield, Connecticut, as a meeting place for Soviet agents.
In her letters to me Martha never discussed the charges, in fact, never even mentioned them. Nor did she complain about their lives as exiles behind the Iron Curtain. As the years went by, I gathered, their lives became increasingly lonely. Martha, I also gathered, yearned to visit the West-West Berlin, which she knew so well, Vienna, Rome, Paris, London. But for fear of extradition they had to confine their travels to Hungary, Yugoslavia, and the rest of the Balkans, or to Poland-rather drab lands except for Hungary. And they wanted, I judged, to do something more with their lives than just exist as lonely exiles. Martha was a gifted writer, as her book on her years in Germany showed. But in Prague and Havana her talent apparently was not put to use. For years after their return to Czechoslovakia from Cuba, she wrote, she was quite content to be a hausfrau. Most unlike her!
And so the Sterns lived on, an American woman and man without a country.
Then in the spring of 1979, a quarter of a century after their hasty departure from our shores, Martha and Alfred were once again on the front page of the New York Times. The U.S. government announced it was dropping the espionage charges against the Sterns and quashing the indictment because the most important witnesses in the case were no longer alive.
Martha wrote from Prague jubilantly, asking whether I thought they could safely return home and inquiring what life was like now in the U.S.A. and especially in New York, from which they had been separated so long. They took off at once for visits to Paris and London. But they did not return to their native land. "We are really too old," she wrote, "to pull up roots."
Alfred Stern died of cancer in Prague on July 24, 1986. He was eighty-eight and had lived in exile for thirty-three years. He left no public word about his plight. Martha wrote that she would never fully recover from this loss. They had been married for nearly half a century and she was now paying a penalty, she said, "for too long and too devoted a marriage and living in a foreign country whose language neither of us was able to learn."
Once, in 1985, Martha wrote me a long letter, which perhaps shed a little light on her story. She had recently been working, she said, "on that big romantic-tragic thing in my life in the thirties." She made it plain it had to do with her experience with the first secretary of the Soviet embassy in Berlin, which I have already mentioned. He was a brilliant, attractive Russian named Boris Vinogradov, whom even the most conservative American correspondents in Berlin hailed as a friend, although knowing that he was a dedicated Communist who believed in the greatness of the Soviet Union. He had gone on from Berlin to Warsaw as chargé d'affaires of the Russian embassy there. I remember he was warned by one of his American correspondent friends, who, on his way back from Moscow, stopped over in Warsaw to see him, against returning to the Soviet Union. Stalin was beginning his reign of terror, dispatching by firing squads hundreds, then thousands, of the party faithful. But the young diplomat was too devoted a Bolshevik to be frightened by such a threat. Continuing the Revolution, he said, was more important than any man's life, including his own. He went back. After the war we learned that he had been liquidated by Stalin.
Martha now added that "despite rumors to the contrary," her affair with the young Soviet diplomat in Berlin "had nothing to do with later developments and faiths. These came from hatred of the Nazis, the [civil] war in Spain and deep respect for the Soviet Union as the biggest opponent of Hitler. You understand, I'm sure."
I shared her hatred of the Nazis and her sympathies with Republican Spain, betrayed by Franco and destroyed by the armed intervention of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. But respect for the Soviet Union as the biggest opponent of Hitler?
For the Soviet Union that in August 1939 had signed the infamous pact with Nazi Germany, which enabled Hitler to launch World War II a fortnight later? Was the Soviet Union at that moment of shame "the biggest opponent of Hitler"? On the contrary. The U.S.S.R. became the biggest ally and collaborator of the Nazi tyrant. It became his "biggest opponent" only after Nazi Germany turned and attacked it on June 22, 1941, when it had no other recourse but to defend itself. Only then, with its very survival at stake, did it become "the biggest opponent" of Hitler.
So how could I understand-in the light of the facts of history? Furthermore, there could be no understanding when one did not know what had led Martha and her husband to flee the country and to spend the rest of their lives in lonely exile in the Communist lands. Did they believe they could not get a fair trial amidst the hysteria of the McCarthy time? Did they want to escape the fate of Alger Hiss, or even more, of the Rosenbergs? So far as I know, they never publicly denied, as Hiss had done, the charges of espionage for the Soviet Union. Once in Prague, Alfred was quoted in the press as saying the charges were "fantastic" and "extraordinary." Fantastic and extraordinary they certainly were. But were they false? Or true? The government never took its case to court. And Alfred Stern, dying at eighty-eight, carried his secret to the grave. Now only Martha could reveal it.
CHAPTER 3
The 1960s raced by. My days were full of work and of wonder at what was going on-in our country and abroad-and how swiftly and dramatically life was changing. A new generation was taking over our country, as the election in 1960 of John F. Kennedy, forty-three, as president showed. Its men and women were born well into the century. A still younger generation, the one that had reached the colleges and universities, was in revolt. It was stirring up the campuses and provoking fear and resentment among the old fuddyduds of the Establishment. Changes that would deeply affect the lives of Americans were sweeping the old away.
The 1950s, for instance, had seen television replace radio as the chief purveyor not only of entertainment but also of news and sports over the air. At the beginning of the 1950s, there had been only three million television sets in America. In the very first year of the decade another seven million sets were added. By the beginning of the 1960s there were forty million sets. Nearly every American family had one. Whether you liked it or not, television had come to occupy and dominate the lives of most Americans. They spent five or six hours a day gazing at the tube. They got most of their entertainment from it. By the 1970s it was the chief source of news for our citizens, and for many the only source-an appalling development, it seemed to me, and not the only one. Members of families, their eyes glued on the TV set, lost the art of conversing with each other. They sat in silence for hours before the horrible shrine. Not only families but friends. A social evening for many now consisted of gathering to listen to two or three favorite programs. In the course of an evening hosts and guests would exchange scarcely a word.
Most programs on commercial television, it seemed to me, were trash. They appealed to a lot of people, to be sure, and there was nothing wrong with that. What was wrong was that the three big commercial networks, enjoying a monopoly of the air and interested only in making money, would present little or nothing that appealed to a large minority that wanted some substance in their programs. I could not believe that their day-time soap operas and evening "sitcoms" contributed much to civilization and enlightenment in the U.S.A. Or even to adult entertainment. Later, cable TV offered the prospect of a change for the better, but in practice it turned out to be disappointing, at least to me.
Public television, too. Except for news and sports, I listened to it most. Its broadcasts from the New York Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra were fine but infrequent. One remembered that radio offers these programs every weekend. Public television also offered interesting programs of animal life and others on the origin and development of life on the planet, but who wanted to watch animal life night after night? There was no balance in the programs. If the commercial networks avoided controversy so as not to frighten advertising sponsors, the Public Network also avoided it because, I suppose, it did not want to offend Congress, which supplied some of its funds, or the corporate "supporters," whose contributions grew substantially.
I watch weekend sports and the daily evening news on network TV and a play, an opera, a symphony concert occasionally on public television. There is not much real news on the evening shows-there is not time to treat it more than superficially-but from them I get a certain feel for people and places. For news I have to turn to my local paper, and since I live in the northeast, to the New York Times. That still leaves me a good deal of time for reading. I gather there is not much general reading, at least of books, in our country anymore. Gazing at the tube has replaced it as it has replaced social conversation. Are the consequences not predictable: a country of illiterate boobs sitting dumbly around the TV set, like ancient cavemen around a fire, unable to communicate or articulate, stupefied by inanities?
***
In the fall of 1962 an event occurred that sobered up the country and forced it to face a grim reality: our very extinction no less. A nuclear war between Russia and the United States was narrowly averted. This time Americans suddenly woke to the threat of a nuclear exchange and its consequences.
I was up on the farm doing some fall chores. But when the crisis broke, I abandoned them to stay glued to a TV set. On Tuesday, October 23, 1962, I began my diary:
A possibility of nuclear war and the end of the world. Pres. Kennedy last night broadcast the information that Russia was building missile bases in Cuba capable of delivering nuclear warheads on the nearby U.S.A. and Latin Amer. countries. He demanded Russia dismantle U.S.A. bases, and he clapped on what he called a "quarantine"-actually a naval and air blockade-of Cuba, shutting off all offensive weapons. If and when American naval vessels stop Russian ships, what happens?
It seems obvious to me that no American president could sit idly by while the Russians set up nuclear missile bases which might destroy us in a few minutes. Not to defend against that would be criminal negligence….
On the other hand, one thing can lead to another in this situation, with each side refusing to back down, until you get the nuclear war that will blow up the planet, though neither Russia or the U.S.A. wanted to go that far. That is the chief danger….
***
Friday, October 26. New York. Back from lectures Wednesday and Thursday evenings at universities in Pennsylvania. For first time the possibility of utter destruction weighs on our people. At Susquehanna U. last night the president and one of the deans approached me before the lecture to say their students were in a state of shock, could not study all week and deeply feared that nuclear war was about to come and that it would wipe us out.…The president and dean asked me to reassure the students in my talk, but this was impossible. I had been deeply depressed myself all week. But I tried to point out (in my talk)…that Russia's head, Khrushchev, had miscalculated in regard to us, that miscalculation has always been the greatest danger. The only comfort I could offer was a guess that Mr. K. might realize his miscalculation and draw back-since he didn't want to see Russia destroyed.
***
Farm, Sunday, Oct. 28.-About noon, while I was out in the front yard raking leaves, Tess called out from the living-room window that there had been a break and that it looked like peace. I rushed in. She had just picked up a broadcast that Mr. K. had backed down, that he had agreed to dismantle the Russian missile bases in Cuba.…Apparently at the brink of nuclear war the Russians drew back….
Two days later the Defense Department announced that air photographs disclosed that Russians were swiftly dismantling the bases. The world's first threat of nuclear extinction had been averted. But it was a close thing. Would we be so lucky the next time?
***
The following year, 1963, the country was again thrown into shock. And this time there was sorrow too and despair. The young president was assassinated at Dallas.
It was a Friday in late November, and I had gone up to the country the day before for the weekend. There was some wood to saw up and split, so that we would have enough to last over Christmas. About 1 P.M. I knocked off and went into the house for a bite of lunch. I was just finishing when the wife of a farmer down the road phoned to say she had just heard the last part of a bulletin on TV. Apparently the president had been shot. I turned on my set. Walter Cronkite, so stunned he could hardly speak, was saying on CBS that the president was being rushed to the hospital in Dallas but that it was not known whether his wounds were serious. So there was hope, and I grasped it desperately and clung to it. I remained sitting immobile, stricken, before the tube the rest of the afternoon and all through the evening, refusing at first to accept the truth of what happened and then trying to cope with it. Only the next day could I collect myself enough to put something in my diary.
Farm. Saturday, November 23, 1963. Pres. Kennedy was shot and killed by an assassin at Dallas, Texas, yesterday.
I have never before felt such a personal loss in the death of a president or public figure-not even the time in April, 1945, when F. D. Roosevelt, a beloved figure to my generation, suddenly died when I was on leave in Cedar Rapids….
Personally I had never even met Kennedy, except for a brief handshake some years ago in New York when as senator and author of a best-selling book called Profiles in Courage, he made the major address at the Annual Book Award ceremony. I believe he received the award that year…for nonfiction….
And though I had some reservations about him as president these past three years (I had voted for him), he was the first occupant of the White House since FDR who inspired me with much confidence and hope, and even affection.…He had a spontaneous sense of humor that added to his attractiveness. It bubbled over in his last public appearance at a [breakfast] speech at Fort Worth an hour or so before he was murdered. Thanks to TV we saw that appearance-after the sudden death was reported, and this juxtaposition, this seeing him in such a radiant mood just before death, made the tragedy almost beyond bearing.
As I sat watching the little screen, I kept thinking that this was the clinching proof that not only is there no sense in human life but that all the talk of the religious men about there being a righteous God that rules the universe is humbug. If there is a God and he can permit such an insane, inane ordering of human existence, then God is not what the Christians or the Jews or the Moslems or the Buddhists teach and think he is. Still the Masses and the memorial services went on last evening and today-there were several on TV-as if somehow this murder of this decent young man in such a position was part of a divine justice which we on earth do not understand. I cannot follow that.
By nightfall the scene had shifted to Washington.
Lyndon Johnson, the V.P., who took the oath of office in the president's plane at the Dallas airfield-apparently the authorities were afraid he might be shot if he appeared in a public building-spoke a few words at the Washington airport as he alighted after Mrs. Kennedy had departed with her husband's body. The din of the motors was so great that you could scarcely hear him.…He said simply: "I will do my best. That is all I can do. I ask for your help-and God's."
Scotty Reston had a very good piece that morning on the front page of the New York Times.
America wept tonight, not only for its dead young president, but for itself. The grief was general for somehow the worst in the nation had prevailed over the best.…For something in the nation itself, some stain of madness and violence, had destroyed the highest symbol of law and order.
Television that dark November weekend showed us the actual killing of the man who killed the president.
Farm, Sunday, November 24…Shortly after noon in full view of the TV screen, which I was watching, a man stepped forward in the basement corridor of the Dallas city jail and shot the man accused of assassinating Kennedy. He fired one shot into the man's stomach from about one foot away. This assassin too seems to have been a shady character, one Ruby, alias Rubinstein, owner of a strip-tease night-joint in Dallas, and a holder of a police record.
Later-an hour or so later-in the same hospital-and about ten feet away from-where Kennedy had died Friday, he too died. His name was Lee Harvey Oswald. He was 24.
Oswald had been picked up by the Dallas police a couple of hours after the president was shot, at first accused of slaying a policeman. He was formally charged with killing President Kennedy shortly before midnight. On this Sunday just before noon he was being moved from the city to the county jail.
A loner and a drifter, Oswald had served in the Marine Corps and then taken off for the Soviet Union, where he worked in a factory for nearly three years, married a Russian woman, and applied for Soviet citizenship. This was refused. Oswald soon tired of living in the Soviet Union, applied to regain his American passport and returned to the United States. He was obviously a very confused young man. His motives for shooting the president were not known, or at least never made public, and with his murder it was unlikely that they ever would be. Thus suspicions were aroused that never quite died down. I noted them in my diary that very day I saw him on TV being murdered. There were some seventy Dallas police guarding him in the jail's basement corridor through which he was being whisked. Not one of them lifted a finger, much less a gun, to stop the assassin. And what was Ruby doing there in the first place? The public had been excluded. Only reporters were allowed entrance. And the Dallas police knew the man.
Was it a cover-up? I wondered in my diary, noting the suspicious behavior of the Dallas police. For years some Americans wondered, even after a Presidential Commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren had, after long hearings, confirmed that in its opinion Oswald was the lone assassin, firing the fatal shots from the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository, where he was employed. My diary for that day, Sunday, November 24, ended:
We seem to have shown the world and ourselves these past two days what savage, unlawful, unrestrained people we are.
The assassination of the young president, the slaying of his assassin, was too much to comprehend at once. As David Brinkley put it on NBC:
The events of those days don't fit, you can't place them anywhere, they don't go in the intellectual luggage of our time. It was too big, too sudden, too overwhelming and it meant too much. It has to be separate and apart.
So many who had meant much to me, either as friends or notables, or both, were passing away. The last of the giants who had shaped the world in the years that led up to and through the Second World War died at the beginning of 1965. After Hitler and Mussolini and Roosevelt, whose lives came to an end in 1945, the last year of the war, and Stalin, who died in 1953, Winston Churchill, whose courage, eloquence, and fierce determination, had kept Britain in the war against the conquering Nazi Germans until the final Allied triumph, died in London at ninety on January 24.
He had survived the end of an era after the First World War and the end of another after the second war. In some ways, though, he was a character out of the eighteenth century, especially in his vision of the world and in his use of the English language in his speeches and writing. Perhaps it was this which caused him to have one shocking blind spot in his view of world affairs. This was his implacable opposition to Britain's giving India its independence. He had a romantic eighteenth-century idea-perhaps partly from his military service in India as a young man-that most Indians loved to be ruled by the British and that if they were set free, the various peoples and religious sects would fly at each other's throats and destroy the country. He talked a lot of nonsense about the "warrior races" of India wanting to serve under the British raj. A great politician himself, he had nothing but contempt for the Indian politicians who were pressing for self-government for their country. Contempt for Gandhi above all, whom he never understood or tried to understand.
I remember in 1931, while I was covering the Indian revolution, Churchill's complaining bitterly to the House of Commons that Gandhi was being allowed to negotiate on equal terms with the viceroy of India-at that time Lord Irwin, later Lord Halifax. The spectacle, Churchill claimed, nauseated him.
Gandhi took Churchill's attacks on him with typical good humor. I remember his chuckling when an aide read to him the outburst of Churchill against him in 1931 in the Commons. Gandhi had been meeting with the viceroy in Delhi in an attempt to reach a peace settlement. Day after day the frail little Hindu leader trudged up the marble steps of the Viceroy's Palace.
Churchill couldn't stand it. Rising in the House of Commons, he expressed his revulsion at "the nauseating and humiliating spectacle of this one-time Inner Temple lawyer [Gandhi], now a seditious fakir, striding half-naked up the steps of the Viceroy's Palace, there to negotiate and parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor."
In great contrast to his primitive views on India, Churchill saw very clearly and very early the threat of Nazi Germany. And because of this he became a pariah in his own Tory party, a lone voice in the wilderness as the party under Neville Chamberlain blindly opted for disarmament at home and appeasement of Hitler abroad.
It was during this period, in 1938, that I had a rather droll experience with Churchill. I thought of it as I read through the obituary and an account of all the worldwide tributes on this great man's death. It happened a day or two after I had flown from Vienna to London to give an uncensored report on the Anschluss. CBS, for which I was a correspondent in Europe, asked me to get Churchill to broadcast on the crisis, but it would pay him only fifty dollars. When I phoned Churchill at the House of Commons, he agreed to do a broadcast; but he wanted more than fifty dollars, which was a ridiculous sum. From the way he talked I concluded he would accept five hundred dollars. But William Paley, the head of CBS, was adamant. He would not pay more than fifty, and we lost the broadcast.
When the Germans attacked in the west on May 10, 1940, the hapless Chamberlain was thrust aside and Churchill finally attained his lifelong ambition. He became prime minister. And just in time! For it was he in those dark months that saw the fall of France, the mass bombing of Britain, and the threat of a Nazi invasion who held the country together and galvanized it into defiance of Hitler. Without his indomitable spirit all might have been lost before Russia and the United States were drawn into the war the following year. And along with Franklin Roosevelt he was the architect of the Anglo-American triumph over Hitler in the west.
Churchill, in my observation, was the greatest orator of our era. In my time in Nazi Germany, I heard almost all of Hitler's principal speeches between 1934 and the end of 1940. They were tremendously effective, at least with the Germans. I heard Mussolini orate in Italy and once in Berlin. I listened a good deal to the golden voices of Aristilde Briand and Paul Boncour in France, and, of course, to many broadcast talks of President Roosevelt. But of all these Churchill, I thought, was the greatest public speaker. His mastery was due not only to his voice but also to other factors. He had a wonderful sense of timing. His eloquence lay not only in the way he expressed himself but also in his words-words that would live in one's memory.
Few who heard them at the time or read them will ever forget the words he spoke to the Commons when he took over the government as the Germans began to sweep westward through Holland, Belgium, and France those May days.
We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many long months of strife and of suffering.…I would say to the House: I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.
Even more eloquent were his words to the Commons on an even darker day a few weeks later, after the Germans had conquered France and the Low Countries and driven the remnants of the British expeditionary force off the continent. Britain stood alone against the triumphant Hitler, who was poised to launch his Luftwaffe bombers against Britain and then invade it. It was one of Britain's darkest hours in all her long history. Churchill stood up in the Commons and said:
We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end; we shall fight in France; we shall fight on the sea and the oceans; we shall fight with growing confidence and with growing strength in the air; we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be; we shall fight in the fields and in the streets; we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender; and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas…would carry on the struggle, until in God's good time, the new world with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
And there was his tribute to the fighter pilots of the RAF who turned back the Luftwaffe in the greatest air battle ever fought: "Never in history have so many owed so much to so few." And his much-quoted crack that Russia was "a riddle, wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma."
Public speaking came naturally to him, but he also worked hard at it. Though he rarely, if ever, read a speech verbatim, as most American politicians do (it was forbidden in the House of Commons, I believe), he made copious notes and had them well in mind before he got up to speak.
"Never rise to speak," he once admonished a group of us correspondents, "unless you know precisely what you want to say-and have the notes to remind you of it."
Some of his colleagues thought he overdid it. Once in London in 1943, halfway through the war, I recall Anthony Eden, the foreign secretary and eventually successor to Churchill as prime minister, complaining that the P.M. had secluded himself for three days in order to draft a crucial speech to the Commons.
"He has disappeared from sight!" Eden said. "None of us can get to see him. A lot of important matters have to wait."
Churchill was stunned that at the very moment of triumph over Hitler in 1945, for which he had labored so hard and long, the voters in Britain turned him out in a national election and elected a Labour government instead.
I watched him in the Commons a few months later speaking for the Tory opposition against a Labour bill to nationalize the steel industry. (An old friend, G. R. Strauss, a wealthy but left-wing Labourite, was the minister in charge of the nationalization.) Churchill seemed much older-perhaps the burden of the war years, of seeing his country through one crisis after another, was largely responsible. He was stooped and the fire seemed to have died down and words came with surprising difficulty. Perhaps the subject bored him.
The last time I saw him was in New York in 1946 when he invited a few of us former correspondents in for a late breakfast in his suite at the Waldorf. He was attired in the coveralls he had worn so often during the war and he was sipping from a wineglass full of brandy. Apparently he noticed surprise on the faces of some of his guests that he would be imbibing such strong drink at such an early hour. At any rate, with a twinkle in his eye he quipped that, as he once said, he neither wanted nor needed brandy but that it was pretty hazardous to interfere with the ineradicable habit of a lifetime.
Churchill seemed full of life again, content with the role of opposition leader in the Commons, which he said gave him time to finish his war memoirs, do a little painting, and spend much of his time in his beloved country home, Chartwell, which he had helped to build with his own hands. But I suspected that his exuberant spirits were due largely to his zest for the controversy that a speech he had made a few days before had aroused not only in the United States but also throughout the world. He had spoken at Westminster College, a small institution at Fulton, Missouri, with a beaming President Truman looking on.
Stalin, his armies having installed puppet Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, was becoming more and more belligerent toward the West in his speeches and actions. In Fulton, Churchill rose to take issue with him.
"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic," he said in a peroration that reverberated around the world and gave it a new term for the line separating the East and West in Europe, "an iron curtain has descended across the continent." The Soviet Union constituted "a growing challenge and peril to Christian civilization." He thought that the Russians could be halted only if the English-speaking nations stood together against them.
Though this was pretty much the line of the Truman administration and the Congress, the speech caused an immediate furor in our country. The wartime hero was accused of wanting to foment another world war-this time against Russia. Even true-blood anti-Communists criticized Churchill for wanting to shore up Britain's waning power by provoking America into joining her in an anti-Soviet campaign. The speech, said Walter Lippmann, our dean of columnists, was an "almost catastrophic blunder," and he reminded his readers that British imperial interests and American vital interests were far from identical.
I have mislaid my diary notes on this last meeting with Churchill. But, as I recall, he feigned surprise at American reaction to his speech. It was not "anti-Russian" at all. Had Americans read the headlines but not what he actually had said? He had specifically declared that he did not believe the Soviet Union wanted war-only the fruits of war, that is, the expansion of its power.
If my memory is at all correct, Churchill grew more somber before our talk was over. Obviously he had been bitterly disappointed that the Allies, who together had brought down Hitler and the Third Reich, had fallen out as soon as the peace came. I think that despite all his long experience with the cussedness of mankind and the deceits of many, he believed that the Allies could have made a peace that would be lasting and offer security to all nations, large and small. But this had not happened-just the opposite. This had depressed him. Two years later, as he finished the sixth and last volume of his memoirs, he could not help stating its theme as follows:
HOW THE GREAT DEMOCRACIES TRIUMPHED, AND SO WERE ABLE TO RESUME THE POLICIES WHICH HAD SO NEARLY COST THEM THEIR LIFE.
I found a certain inconsistency in this. It was he himself who was now stressing that it was not because the triumphant democracies had fallen out-they really hadn't-but because Stalin had opted for hostility to the Allies, which had helped save his country, that we owed the mess we had made of the peace. I did not believe that our side was blameless. Many a powerful figure in the West was already pushing for what soon would be called a Cold War. Some were even calling for a preventive war against the Soviet colossus while the U.S.A. still was the only power to have an atomic bomb. The distrust was mutual. For as long as Stalin lived, better relations with the Soviet Union were impossible.
***
Churchill's great wartime antagonist, Aneurin Bevan, the fiery-tongued old warrior of the Labour party, had died five years before, in 1960, at the age of sixty-two. I had first met him in 1929 when he was elected to the House of Commons for the first time, and we remained in touch as long as he lived. I paid a brief tribute to him in the first volume of these memoirs, but I would like to add this.
He had come out of the Welsh coal mines to become a dominant figure in British politics. He had been elected from the Welsh constituency of Ebbw Vale, which continued to send him to Parliament to the end of his life. Nye, as he was known to almost everyone, was a ball of fire in those days, determined to right the wrongs of society and especially to alleviate the plight of the poor. Though the fire died down somewhat-though not by much-as he grew older and matured and mellowed, he never abandoned for a moment his fierce concern for the underdogs of our world.
I had a feeling in 1929 that though he would stumble he would go far. Stumble he did, finding himself often at odds with his own Labour party, whose left wing he led. Once, in 1929, he was kicked out of the party and in 1951 he resigned from a key post in the Labour government. But he always came back. At his death he was deputy leader of the party, and its most prominent figure. Yet the goal he sought most eluded him. He wanted eventually to become the leader of the Labour party and prime minister. Perhaps he would have, had his life not been cut short by a fatal illness.
Nye Bevan's feuds with Churchill added much spice to the debates in the House of Commons, where his oratory rivaled that of the great wartime prime minister. He could be as sharp and as witty as the old Tory antagonist. "You are the chief architect of our misery!" Bevan would shout at Churchill, who once called him "a squalid nuisance" and at another time assailed him as "this evil counsellor…this gamin from some Welsh gutter." Actually, I believe, the two warriors had a great admiration and respect for each other.
For a man who went to work in the coal mines when he was thirteen and had only two years of higher education at a labor college in London, Nye was an astonishingly well-read man. He devoured books, especially on history, politics, economics. And he had an immense intellectual curiosity, constantly widening his horizons not only from books but also from meeting new people of all sorts. Once in London, in 1943, he phoned to say he heard John Steinbeck was in town and he would like to meet him. The three of us sat up all one night in my room at the Savoy discussing everything under the sun and sometimes arguing issues with such passion and heat that tempers flared.
Bevan turned out to be my most provocative friend. Some of our arguments went on for years, and at times we fell into shouting matches. One of our differences was over military conscription. With the growing menace of Hitler's Germany, I thought Britain should introduce the draft in order to build up an army. I would fly over from Berlin to London to try to persuade Nye to get the Labour party to back it. But he was violently opposed. We fought over it until the war came.
In 1955, when Bevan visited America for the second time, he seemed slated to become the next British foreign minister if Labour were returned to office soon, as seemed likely. With that in mind, John Gunther and I set up a meeting at John's house for him to meet Adlai Stevenson, whom we thought might become secretary of state if the Democrats won the White House after Eisenhower's second term. Curiously, the two did not seem to hit it off. As it turned out neither ever got the job to preside over foreign affairs.
Nye Bevan's greatest accomplishment was in fighting for, and largely setting up, Britain's National Health Service. Often berated for being too negative because he was always on the attack, Bevan now showed great creative powers. As minister of health from 1945 to 1951 and then as minister of labor and national health services, he was in charge of instituting this most drastic social change in British society. Criticized though it has been for its many flaws, Britain's National Health Service, which gives every citizen free medical, dental, and hospital service from the cradle to the grave, has become an unshakeable part of British life, supported and maintained even by the Tories in their long spells of power. In America, the most affluent nation on earth, we offer a watered-down version of this service only to our elderly.
In 1929 in London, I also met Jennie Lee, the daughter of a Scottish coal miner, who too was elected by Labour to Parliament that year for the first time and so at twenty-four became the youngest member of the Commons, one of its few women and certainly the most beautiful. It had to be that she and Nye would marry, and they did in 1934. They made an attractive pair. Jennie too rose in the Labour party and finally became a minister in a Labour government.
Tess and I had a deep affection and admiration for her, too, and in the foreword she asked me to write for her second book, This Great Journey, I could not help remarking that she was "one of the remarkable young women of our time-our own country has had no one quite like her"-and alluding to her "dark, laughing, Scottish beauty and great charm."
***
On the afternoon of July 14, 1965, Adlai Stevenson collapsed on a London street and died. He was sixty-five-"only four years older than me," I noted in my diary.
I kept thinking last night of what strange and ironic tricks fate plays on men. Stevenson, who wanted to be president, and was nominated twice for the office by the Democratic party, never made it because he had the bad luck to run each time against a war hero, Eisenhower. Against any other Republican candidate…he would have made it. Eisenhower, who probably never thought of becoming president and probably wasn't much interested, became president twice. Johnson got to the White House two years ago by accident, the death of Kennedy.
I often thought from talking with him that Stevenson wanted even more to be secretary of state than president. But in this quest too he lost out. President Kennedy, out of pique at Stevenson's defying him at the 1960 Democratic convention, and President Johnson, out of ignorance probably, named another, genial but mediocre Dean Rusk, to the office. This was to cost them dearly and was a disaster for Johnson. They did appoint Stevenson U.S. representative at the United Nations and then, at least in Kennedy's case, double-crossed him, especially in the Bay of Pigs crisis when the president deliberately misled him.
Scotty Reston, in an appraisal on page one of the New York Times, made a good observation. Stevenson, he wrote, "was the man of thought in an age of action. He was in tune with the worldwide spirit of the age, but not with the spirit of his own country." To the Times of London, Adlai Stevenson was a "tragic figure" in American history, "a prophet before his time, who received honor but not power" and who died "full of disappointments."
In the last year or two he scarcely hid these disappointments. A few weeks before, after attending the funeral of Ed Murrow in New York, we had walked down the street together. He seemed strangely tired-strangely because he usually was so bouncy-and very subdued. I was aware from random remarks he had made and from what friends said that he felt frustrated with his work as U.S. representative at the United Nations. Both the White House and the State Department often either misled him or kept him in the dark as to U.S. policy. He did not like that or having to defend policies he personally opposed. His views were more and more dismissed or ignored in Washington. But on that stroll after Ed's funeral he obviously did not feel like talking of his problems. He seemed too depressed.
To Eric Sevareid, who had a long talk with him in London three days before his death, he confided that he was tired and expected to resign his post at the U.N. within a few days. He would retire from public life, he said, practice a little law in Chicago and New York, visit with his grandchildren, "his greatest delight," and "sit in the shade with a glass of wine in his hand and watch people dancing."
Some things puzzled me about Adlai Stevenson and I noted one or two of them in my diary that day after his sudden death.
A strange and contradictory man.…He had great wit-a rarity in the U.S.A. today, a sparkling sense of humor that was always erupting in his public speeches and private conversation. He was an intellectual, an egg-head-a type considered suspicious in America.…But he was indecisive. He found it hard to come to a final decision. And while this often shows one's intelligence-since things are rarely black and white-it is a handicap to a man in high public office….
Though he fell short of attaining the great prizes he sought, he was a good loser. Few who heard and saw him on TV will forget his graceful words the night he first lost to Eisenhower. After congratulating the general he added:
Someone asked me as I came in, down on the street, how I felt, and I was reminded of a story that a fellow-townsman of ours used to tell, Abraham Lincoln. They asked him how he felt after an unsuccessful election. He said he felt like a little boy who had stubbed his toe in the dark. He said that he was too old to cry but it hurt him too much to laugh.
CHAPTER 4
So many writers-poets and novelists mostly-who had helped enrich my life were dying in those postwar years.
H. G. Wells, who had seemed such a towering literary figure at one time to my generation, died in London in the summer of 1946. I had run into him in London during the war and this once-idol of mine had been bitter and somewhat lost, I felt. The world had not turned out as he had hoped.
Rebecca West, in the years that she befriended me, talked often of Wells. They had been lovers before the First World War when she was young and beautiful, and I gathered she had very much wanted to marry him. But, married at the time, he had held off. Later, after his wife died, he had wanted to marry Moura Budberg, complaining to George Bernard Shaw that "she will stay with me, eat with me, sleep with me. But she will not marry me," which pleased the great playwright. Wells had brought Baroness Budberg, a charming Russian, who was also the lover of Maxim Gorky, to Vienna when I was stationed there; and John Gunther and I saw a bit of them during that visit. Wells was still hopeful that a world government would bring peace and happiness to the world, though Moura, who had lived through the Russian Revolution, was skeptical.
I was fascinated by a woman who could be at the same time mistress to two of the leading writers in the world. We kept up an acquaintanceship to near the end of her life. One of the most interesting evenings I ever had occurred in New York after the war when I had dinner with Moura Budberg and Rebecca West, each a little wary of the other, and they reminisced about Wells. But even more fascinating, after Rebecca had left, was sitting up all night with Moura to hear her recount the night in 1936 that Maxim Gorky died in his dacha outside of Moscow. She was with him. And she believed that he was poisoned by Stalin, who could no longer stomach Gorky's refusal to support fully his bloody dictatorship. Again, as after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, which had caught her in Petrograd, she was forced to flee in the dead of the night. Stalin would surely kill her, to silence her, if he could find her. She somehow made her way safely out of Russia.
H. G. Wells died bravely and with his sense of humor intact. When an old friend, toward the end, kept breaking in on a monologue he was delivering, Wells retorted: "Don't interrupt me. Can't you see I'm busy dying?"
***
Ernest Hemingway passed on in July 1961, just short of reaching sixty-two. Reading the obits and the tributes from all over the world, I wondered what time would do to his reputation. I myself believe that he must be considered our greatest contemporary writer, who created a new style, a new language, with his lean, fast-moving, hard-bitten prose. His fame, I believe, did him in in the end. He began to believe in his own myth, and this was fatal. But he had known greatness. And he had given us some of the finest writing of our time.
Thomas Mann used to say that our country seemed hardly aware that it had produced between the two world wars four of the greatest novelists in the West: Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Dos Passos, and Faulkner.
William Faulkner, who like Hemingway won a Nobel Prize, died the next year on July 6. "Probably our greatest writer," I noted in my diary the next day, "one of the last of the American giants who came up after the First World War."
John Dos Passos died on September 28, 1970, at the age of seventy-four. Over half a century he had drifted from the far left to the far right. It was not so important that the man who in early life had contributed to the Communist New Masses ended up writing for the reactionary National Review or that he who had once supported William Z. Foster, the Communist candidate for the presidency, became an ardent supporter of the presidential candidacy of Barry Goldwater. Most important and depressing to me, at least, was that the author of the U.S.A. trilogy of novels, completed in 1936, could later write such a different trilogy, District of Columbia, finished in 1949. The first had been a brilliantly written and passionate account of the injustices of life in industrial America in the first third of the twentieth century. The second had been, at least to me and even to most of the sympathetic critics, a rather bloodless but acerbic assault on President Roosevelt and the New Deal. Twelve years later came the long novel Midcentury, a one-sided attack on the trade unions, for which Dos had been so zealous in his earlier years. Never had a great writer, so far as I remembered, spent the last half of his life assailing what he had thought and written during the first half. And in the process Dos had lost the magic that had made him such a fine writer in the 1920s and 1930s. As a writer he had faded away, the sap gone out of him.
Scott Fitzgerald had died in 1940 at forty-four, burnt out at middle age by drink, early success, and the burden of later failure. Thomas Mann once told me he thought Fitzgerald was the most graceful writer of the great quartet. Perhaps he was, but he had abused his talents and wasted them. Still, his The Great Gatsby, published in 1925, seemed to me as good as anything Hemingway or Faulkner ever wrote.
***
John Steinbeck, also a Nobel laureate, died in 1968 at sixty-six. I noted it in my diary on Christmas Eve, John having died on December 20.
I…saw something of him when he lived around the corner [in New York] during part of the war when I was home, and in London in 1943.
We had gone over there that year as war correspondents to cover the U.S. 8th Air Force, which was just beginning its massive bombing of Germany. I had introduced him to some of my friends, chiefly among the Labour party but he was not very much interested in politics. He was almost apolitical. What concerned him chiefly was the sociology of our society, the plight of the poor and forsaken, as he showed in his great novel The Grapes of Wrath.
For years I was puzzled that Steinbeck, like Fitzgerald and Hemingway, had slid downhill after writing his great work early in his career. It had happened to Fitzgerald after The Great Gatsby in 1925; to Hemingway after For Whom the Bell Tolls in 1940; and to Steinbeck after The Grapes of Wrath in 1939.
Was that the inevitable fate of American novelists in our time? It seemed to be becoming a pattern. Steinbeck tried valiantly to go on: Cannery Row, The Wayward Bus, East of Eden, Sweet Thursday, and The Winter of Our Discontent. One gathered he was bitter and frustrated that they were not very well received by the reviewers and the public.
In 1962, John won the Nobel Prize for Literature, the sixth American author to receive it. Paradoxically this highest of honors for a writer, the most coveted prize of all, though it brought him much acclaim and the satisfaction of literary achievement recognized worldwide, also brought a further slacking in his creativity.
"The prize did terrible things to John's ability to create fiction," said Harold Guinzburg, the head of Viking, Steinbeck's publisher. "He felt very frustrated and he would fool around with an entertainment, or something light, to break the tension."
***
Poets I liked were making the front pages with notices of their deaths. Edna St. Vincent Millay had gone in 1950 at fifty-eight. Some of her peers, though praising her, did not think she was the greatest of our contemporary poets. But I thought she was one of the best. It was she who, more than any other, had awakened my interest in modern poetry during my college days. She had come once to my campus in Iowa to read her poetry and later at a reception spoke with some of us students. It was not only that she led me to poetry but also that she helped liberate me by her poetic voice and the example of her life, from the Midwest puritanism and stodginess in which I had grown up. I and a few kindred spirits at the college never tired of reciting her verse, beginning with the lines
My candle burns at both ends,
It will not last the night;
But, ah, my foes, and oh, my friends-
It gives a lovely light!
Her lyric love poems, I think, touched the whole country and her sonnets were to me as moving as those of Keats. I worshipped her and her genius from afar. The three or four times I met her in New York were fleeting.
Steepletop, where Edna Millay lived her later life and died, lies only a few miles over the mountain from where I have resided the last twenty-one years. Each spring I make a pilgrimage across the mountain to visit her grave, listen to poetry readings by some of her surviving friends and, until her death recently, chat with Edna's sister Norma, who lived on and on in the beautiful hills at Steepletop.
***
I liked Carl Sandburg and his poems too, though at this writing (the latter 1980s) he seems not to be held in such esteem as he was when I was growing up in the Midwest and he was a sort of poet laureate of Chicago, whose clatter, rawness, dynamism, violence, corruption, and poverty, but also whose beauty, promise, and excitement he expressed so movingly.
His great six-volume biography of Lincoln, in which there was so much poetic prose, made it biography as literature. Some academics came to scoff at it, complaining of its flawed scholarship and showing no appreciation of its greatness as literature and apparently not knowing that Sandburg spent two decades of his life in research. I believe it will live.
I remembered Sandburg from my youth as a great bard. He too came to our campus, strumming his guitar and singing his folksongs and declaiming his verse. Later he gave me much moral support in the blacklisting days when I was down. He feared no one, certainly not Senator McCarthy and the witch-hunters of the intolerant years. Sadly I began my diary:
Farm. July 23, 1967 (Sunday).-Carl Sandburg dead at his goat farm in North Carolina.
89. A long life. And full.
T. S. Eliot, the American expatriate who became a British subject in 1927 and was one of the greatest poets in the English language of our time and certainly one with tremendous influence on poetry and poets in the twentieth century, died in London at the beginning of 1965 at seventy-six. His impact on my whole generation was enormous. We read and pondered especially The Waste Land, which came out in 1922, with its air of despair and disillusionment at the way our world had turned out: the horrible blood-letting of the First World War-for what?-and the botch the so-called statesmen had made of the postwar peace. One remembered the famous lines, the opening of The Waste Land:
April is the cruellest month
and from The Hollow Men:
This is the way the world ends…
Not with a bang but a whimper.
It was long whispered and eventually confirmed that Eliot's American friend, Ezra Pound, had saved The Waste Land from disaster by urging extensive revisions. Pound died in Venice in 1972 at eighty-seven after an extraordinary life. I never cared much for his poetry but I admired his devotion to it and his generosity in encouraging and helping other poets and writers. In Paris in the 1920s, when one could not help bumping into Pound here or there, I knew of his generosity to James Joyce-somehow he wangled for him a government grant-his encouragement of Hemingway. And one heard of his bullying Harriet Monroe into publishing Eliot's first big poem, "Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," in her Poetry magazine, of his getting Frost first published by sending off some of his poems to a magazine without consulting the poet, of his early recognition of William Carlos Williams and many others.
That was the good side. He had another. Even in the Paris days, before he settled in Italy, I noted his megalomania, his craving for self-advertisement, his hunger for the grandiose. Worse was to come. Years later, after World War II had started, when I had a small office near the CBS shortwave radio listening post in New York whenever I was home, I listened to Pound's outrageous broadcasts from Italy for Mussolini against his native land. He had become a crackpot, and a nasty one, fuming at the Jews on whom he blamed most of the world's ills, especially the war, which Hitler had started and Mussolini, like a jackal, had joined. He cursed Roosevelt and those around him and praised Mussolini, blind to the phoniness of this sawdust Caesar.
In wartime, this was treason-working for the enemy against your own country-and after the war, when Pound was picked up by American troops in Italy, he was duly indicted in Washington. At least two Americans, Best and Chandler, who had broadcast for Hitler from Berlin, got life sentences, but Pound was declared insane and incarcerated in St. Elizabeths Hospital for the Insane in Washington. For years there was much controversy among American writers over whether they should help get Pound pardoned and released from the asylum. It was a difficult problem for me. I had loathed Pound's broadcasts at a time when this nation was fighting for its life against the two Fascist dictatorships, which Pound was defending. But he had long been a bit of a crackpot. Probably few Americans heard his shortwave broadcasts from Rome, so the damage was slight, though I did not forgive him for it. But I felt sad that we were keeping an influential poet and a generous man locked up in a lunatic bin for the rest of his life, crazy as he might have been. The government had dropped indictments against several of the American radio traitors, just as much to blame as Pound. So in the end I joined with other writers trying to obtain Pound's release. After long delays it proved successful. The indictment was dropped in the spring of 1958. Pound was freed, and he returned to his beloved Italy and died there.[66]
***
Inanimate things die too, and sometimes I noted them in my diary. The death of a famous train, of a famous magazine, for instance. Both reminders of an ever-changing world.
On May 29, 1961, I pasted in my diary a clip of a Reuter dispatch from Paris to the New York Times. It began:
The Orient Express is no more.
After a service that has lasted 78 years, the train was on its last journey today [the 28th].
It had left the Gare de l'Est in Paris the night before for Bucharest by way of Basel, Zürich, Innsbruck, Salzburg, Vienna, and Budapest, a journey of sixty hours.
Reading this brought back memories.
How often I have taken that train…from Paris to Istanbul down through Switzerland and Austria to Vienna and then down the Danube to Budapest and then southeast to Bucharest and Istanbul-a journey of 67 hours and usually a pleasant one. Some of the cars branched off to Italy and Yugoslavia (and even to Greece). In my Vienna days I traveled on it frequently to and from Paris.
But there were times when assignments took me on it to Milan and Venice and Rome, to Belgrade, to Athens.
The Orient Express was a comfortable all-Pullman train with good food and wine served in the dining car. It took you through picturesque landscapes, especially the mountains of the Alps from Basel to Salzburg, then the hilly valley of the Danube down through Vienna to Budapest and thereafter the mountains, hills, and valleys of the Balkans, with their quaint villages and colorfully dressed villagers.
What killed the Orient Express? The airplane, no doubt, and to some extent the Iron Curtain. It became much quicker and a bit cheaper to travel by air. After the war it proved exhausting and frustrating to cross the frontier of a Balkan Communist country. You were hauled off the train, even in the dead of the night, to open your baggage to inspection-it too had been removed-even if you were only passing through the country.
Agatha Christie wrote a fine murder thriller set on the Orient Express. I often found the train full of mysterious-looking characters, I noted in my diary, "but I never myself saw a crime perpetrated." Shenanigans, yes, and sudden romance or at least sex, for somehow on that wonderful train the customary restraints, all the taboos, which still existed in that old-fashioned golden time of one's youth, did not stop you.
Lenox, Saturday, December 9, 1972.
Life magazine folded yesterday after 36 years.
Though it was terribly flawed…it made a mark in American journalism as a great picture magazine. Thus goes the last of the great weekly or biweekly national magazines, a victim mainly of TV, with its greater advertising potential. Life's still pictures could not compete with the moving pictures on TV. And the magazine in the last years could not compete with TV for advertising. Look, which published a good deal of my stuff…folded a year ago. And before that the Saturday Evening Post and Colliers.
Probably the mass of Americans has ceased to read even the magazines. It does not read books. It prefers to gawk at the idiot-box-for free.
Sad, though, the passing of another great magazine.
Years later Life reappeared in the form of a monthly, but it was not the same.
***
There were two Germans whose deaths I noted in my diary. Neither of them was very well known in America, but I had followed them at close hand when I lived and worked in Germany.
One was Dr. Hjalmar Horace Greeley Schacht, a gangling banker with a long neck he covered with a high collar and who I thought had one of the most nimble minds of the century. He knew how to land on his feet, no matter what the setback. In fact, he prospered under every regime Germany knew from Kaiser Wilhelm II through the postwar Weimar Republic and Hitler's Third Reich to the time of Chancellor Adenauer in the 1950s. Like a cat, he had nine lives. Or more.
He was credited with restoring the German currency after it slid to a trillion marks to a dollar in the 1920s. Under Weimar he was for years president of the Reichsbank. He became in my time in Germany the architect of Hitler's war economy in the 1930s. He served the Nazis well. Found not guilty of being a war criminal at the Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War, he went back to banking; and after most of his Nazi colleagues had either been hanged, jailed, or forgotten he again prospered.
I saw him occasionally in Germany before the war, sometimes at official ceremonies but mostly at lunches or dinners at the American embassy in Berlin when William E. Dodd was the ambassador. There he liked to pose as really anti-Nazi despite his posts as Hitler's president of the Reichsbank and Nazi minister of economics. He would crack jokes at his Nazi party bosses and occasionally give me a clue to a good story. He was finally fired and arrested by Hitler during the latter part of the war and was confined to a concentration camp from which he was liberated by American troops. I saw him last at Nuremberg, where he sat in the dock with Göring, Hess, Ribbentrop, and other Nazi criminals, fuming that the Americans and British would try him along with such Nazi riffraff. We correspondents were not permitted to talk with the defendants; but through his lawyer Schacht sent word to us of the terrible injustice he felt had been done him by the Allied conquerors. We knew how anti-Nazi he had been. It was hard for me to sympathize; I had always thought that without him and his financial wizardry Hitler's Third Reich would have gone bankrupt by 1939 and been unable to plunge us into another world war.
I saw him in Vienna right after the Anschluss in March 1938, and concluded he had arrived from Berlin to seize Austria's gold. But he would not speak to the foreign press, not even to those of us who had known him in Berlin. I knew what he was up to, but I did not know how low he could stoop to kowtow to Hitler when he thought it necessary. Years later, while researching the Third Reich book, I came upon an account of Schacht's speech at that time to the employees of the Austrian National Bank, which he was incorporating into his German Reichsbank, along with its gold and other assets.
After attacking the foreign press for the way it reported Hitler's military takeover of Austria, Schacht defended it as the "consequence of countless perfidies and brutal acts of violence which foreign countries have practiced against us." This was pure nonsense, but the inimitable Dr. Schacht went on to worse.
Thank God!…Adolf Hitler has created a union of German will and German thought.…And he finally gave the external form to the inner union of Germany and Austria….
Not a single person will find a future with us who is not wholeheartedly for Adolf Hitler.…The Reichsbank will always be nothing but National Socialist or I shall cease to be its manager.
Dr. Schacht then forced the Austrian staff to take an oath to be "faithful and obedient to the Führer."
"A scoundrel he who breaks it!" he yelled and then led his captive audience into shouting a triple "Sieg Heil!"
This great survivor finally died in Munich on June 4, 1970. He was ninety-three.
***
General Franz Halder, chief of the once-vaunted German Army General Staff at the beginning of World War II, did not live quite so long as Schacht. But he was eighty-seven when he died in Bavaria on August 2, 1972. He was generally considered the brains behind Hitler's early military victories: the three weeks' conquest of Poland in September 1939, the six weeks' overwhelming of France in the spring and early summer of 1940, and the rapid German advance in the summer and fall of 1941 to the gates of Moscow. I followed his career rather closely in my years in Germany. He was most generous in helping me solve some military puzzles of the French campaign while I was writing my history of the Third Reich. And when all around him in Germany, especially some of his former fellow generals, were fuming at that book, he publicly defended it.
Hitler sacked him in the spring of 1942 for protesting too much against the warlord's strategy to "finish off" the Russians that summer. The General Staff chief tried to tell the Führer that the German Army simply didn't have the strength. The dictator probably had taken more criticism from General Halder than from any other officer or official. But by this critical time he could no longer stand it, and Halder was relieved of his post. This turned out to be a loss not only to the German Army, which soon would suffer at Stalingrad the worst defeat in its history, but also to historians. For Halder's diary is a unique source of concise information for the period between August 14, 1939, when he began the diary, and September 24, 1942, when he was sacked as chief of the General Staff. All that crucial time he was in daily contact with Hitler and the top men around him, military and civilian. I found its three volumes invaluable in writing the history of Nazi Germany; and I have been amazed that no American publisher had it translated and published over here, for it would have given American readers a unique insight into a very important chapter of history.
General Halder was arrested in 1944 at the time of the attempt of a few army officers to assassinate Hitler. Placed in solitary confinement in a pitch-dark cell for several months and then confined to the Dachau concentration camp, he, like Schacht, was liberated by American troops advancing through the Tyrol on May 4, 1945. Himmler is believed to have ordered the execution of the whole lot, which included Schuschnigg, the former Austrian chancellor who had at first defied Hitler.
At Nuremberg, General Halder stunned the court by submitting a report telling of how, shortly after he became chief of staff in 1938, he had conspired with a group of fellow officers to arrest Hitler and depose him if he attacked Czechoslovakia and got Germany involved in a war the generals felt could not be won. Halder insisted that they were on the verge of carrying out their plan when word reached them in Berlin on September 28, 1938, that Chamberlain, the British prime minister, and Daladier, the French premier, had agreed to go to Munich to meet Hitler and Mussolini in what could only be a sell-out of Czechoslovakia. Since Hitler, thanks to Chamberlain, was going to get what he wanted in Czechoslovakia without war, the conspirators, Halder said, called off their plans to arrest Hitler. This was later confirmed by several of the other conspirators. It was interesting, at least to me, that they had planned to get rid of the Nazi dictator only because he threatened to launch a war the army was doubtful it could win. I would have thought there were even better reasons.
CHAPTER 5
On Monday, December 11, 1972, I ended my diary for that day: "Four of my oldest, closest friends…All dead."
One of them, Mark Van Doren, the poet, had died the day before in West Cornwall, Connecticut, at seventy-eight. Just a week before, on December 3, John Carter Vincent, whose career as an American diplomat Senators McCarthy and McCarran and their fellow witch-hunters had ruthlessly destroyed, had gone.
It had been a bad year for losing friends. Ed Snow, the great foreign correspondent and China hand, died of cancer in February in Switzerland at sixty-six; and Miriam Hopkins, the fiery actress, in October, just short of her seventieth birthday. And now in December, besides Van Doren and Vincent, Jay Allen, an old colleague and friend since our Paris days, and close also to John Gunther and Jimmy Sheean, had died.
And what was going to be a sad Christmas for me because of these losses was turned into a terrible Christmas that year when President Nixon and his scheming secretary of state, Kissinger, began their devastating Christmas bombing of Hanoi, hitting among other things the city's main hospital and massacring many of its patients and staff. They tried to deny it at first, but Telford Taylor, our chief American prosecutor at Nuremberg, happened to be in Hanoi, witnessed the carnage, and reported it to the New York Times, though he was not a correspondent.
Such a Christmas message!
Such American barbarism!
I wrote in my diary that ensuing New Year's Eve: "It makes one feel terribly guilty to be an American." One could not help but feel ashamed. In my German years I had cursed Hitler for his savagery; now I was cursing Nixon and Kissinger (himself a Jewish refugee from Hitler) for theirs. And I mourned for the days when I could go over from my Torrington, Connecticut, farm to West Cornwall to commiserate over such outrageous deeds with three of my oldest friends (three of the four mentioned in the diary): Jim Thurber, Lewis Gannett, and Mark Van Doren. Jim had died sometime back, in 1961; Lewis in 1966; and now Mark in this Christmas season of 1972.
For years, until Jim went, we four, with our wives, would meet Saturday evenings to dine and drink, chew the fat, reminisce about the good old days, curse the phonies who had now made the present so bad, and settle the world's more pressing problems.
Thurber was my oldest friend. We had met, as I have recounted,[67] one August evening in 1925 nearly half a century before when I, a raw youngster just out of college in Iowa, had reported for work on the night copydesk of the Paris edition of the Chicago Tribune and a lanky, owl-eyed man with thick glasses in the slot next to me had introduced himself. "I'm Jim Thurber," he said. The name did not ring a bell. He was, in 1925, not yet known. But he was doing, he soon confided, a lot of writing on the side. What he showed me of it that fall was very good and very funny-obviously he was a born humorist. But he was not getting anywhere, he felt, and he was in despair.
He did an amusing stint on the Riviera that winter editing an absolutely zany edition of the Tribune there-he wrote most of the copy himself out of his impish fantasies-but when he returned to Paris in the spring, he was again despondent. We had some long talks.
"Goddammit, Bill," he would say, "I'll be thirty-two this year. And what have I accomplished?"
He would answer himself. "Nothing.
"A guy has to face it," he would go on. "I'm nearly thirty-two and I ain't going to be no novelist. It's certain I ain't going to be no Fitzgerald or Hemingway. Look what they've done, and they're not even thirty."
Fitzgerald, we figured, would turn thirty that year, but already at twenty-four, Jim reminded me, he had published his first novel, This Side of Paradise, and his really great novel Gatsby when he was only twenty-nine. Hemingway was even younger. And though he had only published up to now three slim books brought out by small American presses in Paris, everyone knew that he had just finished his first novel, The Sun Also Rises, which those who had seen it-writers like Gertrude Stein, Fitzgerald, Dos Passos, and MacLeish-said contained the best writing of any of the younger generation.
"He's only twenty-six, and he writes, apparently, a great novel!" Jim exclaimed. He was not jealous, I could see, just full of admiration.
One evening, in exasperation, I turned on Thurber. "So what the hell! You're nearly thirty-two and you haven't yet written the great American novel. Most of the great writers were late starters. Hemingway and Fitzgerald are the exceptions. They've had early success but maybe they'll peter out. At least you're on your way. And you're going to stay the course."
He would not agree. I had never seen him in such a dark mood. He announced he was through with Paris. It might be good for Fitzgerald and Hemingway and the others. It was not getting him anywhere. He was going home. To New York. Broke and despondent, he took ship home at the end of June 1926, leaving his wife in Paris until he could earn enough in New York to pay her passage back. He told me later he landed in New York with just ten dollars in his pocket and, of course, without a job, without prospects. But in a cheap, furnished room in the Village he settled down and wrote and wrote, and received rejection after rejection, twenty of them from a new magazine, The New Yorker, which had been started the year before.
Eventually, as everyone knows, he finally got a job with that surprising magazine and began a wonderful career that soon would make him our country's greatest humorist, not only in his writing but also in his deftly drawn, strange, outrageous cartoons. Soon he would become the creator of the unforgettable Walter Mitty, of seals in the bedroom and unicorns everywhere, and of hilarious battles between the sexes in which the woman usually got the upper hand. No one, not even Chekhov, could write of dogs and draw them as Thurber did. They were very strange beasts, more human than not.
We kept in touch, though the Atlantic lay between us and we were both very busy in those years that led up to the war. I followed with growing wonder and admiration his work: the pieces and cartoons in The New Yorker and the books, with wonderful titles, that began coming out every year or two-Is Sex Necessary? (with E. B. White), The Owl in the Attic and Other Perplexities, The Seal in the Bedroom and Other Predicaments, My Life and Hard Times, My World and Welcome to It!, and others.
During the war, whenever I was back in New York, we renewed our old ties and after the war we both settled in the hills of northwestern Connecticut-he, full time; I, like Gannett and the Van Dorens, with our jobs in the city, weekends and vacations. By this time Jim was going blind. Like me, he had lost one eye and, in his case, the other was deteriorating. Finally the light went out altogether.
I remember one evening at his house in West Cornwall a few years before his death. We had gathered at his place for our customary Saturday get-together. Threatened with blindness myself and wondering how I would take it if it came, I had marveled that while Jim had chafed at it-it had slowed up his writing and ended his drawing completely-he had never become bitter about it or uttered one word of self-pity.
On this evening he seemed in unusually good spirits.
"I feel pretty good tonight," he said, taking me aside. He had just finished another book, he said.
"With this one, Bill," he said, "I have now written more books since I couldn't see than before."
It was a great triumph.
***
Two other old friends in West Cornwall died in 1966, Lewis Gannett and Irita Van Doren. They were both veterans of the same newspaper.
Lewis had retired ten years before at sixty-four after twenty-seven years as the daily book reviewer for the New York Herald-Tribune. During that time, he estimated, he had written six thousand columns reviewing eight thousand books. And books of every conceivable kind! For despite his insistence that he was only a "newspaperman," he was very erudite. Erudite but not pedantic-ever. And always informal, interesting and full of a wonderful curiosity about men, life, literature, history, nature, the world.
One wondered how he could do it. For the first eighteen years he wrote a book column five days a week, which meant he had to read a book, no matter how long or weighty, and write about it in one day, with two days off on weekends, in his case, for gardening on his beloved farm in Connecticut. To read a book a day and review it was an impossible task. I learned this myself in 1947, just after I got fired from CBS, and the Herald-Tribune asked me to substitute for Gannett for a month. (He had suffered some kind of a breakdown from overwork and had to take a three-month sick leave. John Hersey and Malcolm Cowley also did a month's stint each for him.) I am a slow reader and a slow writer, and after a month of trying to make the daily deadline I had a mild breakdown myself. When we had finished, Hersey, who was also exhausted, and I called on Helen Reid, who by that time was pretty much running the newspaper, told her that what they were asking of Gannett was too much, and persuaded her to hire an assistant reviewer, which she did. Thereafter Lewis had to do only three reviews a week and the letup proved wonderful for his health and his peace of mind.
I have never known a man as generous, gentle (and yet tough-minded), warm, genial, broadminded, and unstuffed as was Lewis Gannett. He loved discovering new writers and encouraging them. In 1932, when he was relatively new at reviewing books daily, he wrote a column about a novel whose author, he said, he had never heard of, Pastures of Heaven.
"I would recommend to editors," Gannett wrote, "a name I have never met before, that of John Steinbeck."
Lewis helped launch the unknown Steinbeck on a career that brought the novelist the Nobel Prize. By that heady time Steinbeck had ceased seeing Gannett. Early on Gannett championed Faulkner and Dos Passos. When Dos moved from the far left to the far right in his politics, Gannett was saddened but kept in touch with him. Toward the end of their careers, Gannett invited Dos, whose latest books were being ignored by reviewers and critics, to write a volume for the Mainstream of America series, which he was editing; and he worked with him very closely to help make it, a work on Jefferson, one of the best books Dos Passos wrote in his declining years.
Gannett loved his farm on Cream Hill in West Cornwall and wrote lovingly of it, especially in his last book, Cream Hill: Discoveries of a Weekend Countryman, in which he told of the unfolding of the seasons-May and October were his favorite months, as they were mine-of his puttering in his gardens. He and his wife, Ruth, had the most spectacular wildflower borders in the county; but Lewis also was proud of his vegetable garden in which, among many other things, he grew the best Golden Bantam sweet corn of us all.
Retiring in 1956, he was able to spend the last ten years of his life on his farm-full time. It is not always that the last years of a man or woman are very happy or fulfilling-life becomes so full of sorrows, aches and pains and other physical ailments, and shortcomings, disappointments, the sense of failure, of goals never attained. But Gannett seemed very happy, finding time not only for growing crops and flowers but also for contemplating the other wonders of nature. Time too for leisured reading, for seeing old friends. I find in my folders of those days a letter he wrote to Tess on November 3, 1965, exactly three months before he died, that reminds me of his warmth and friendship.
It is a month since you and Bill were here.…A few days ago a postcard arrived indicating that Bill was in Paris, and whether you are in Greece, Paris, New York, or where, we do not know.
I had given him a copy of the Persian edition of The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich for his birthday in October.
…The Persian edition of Bill's book has been one of the most effective conversation pieces we have ever had in this house. I won't say that I have been reading it; but I have been looking at it, and so has everyone else who comes to the house.
…I don't suppose you will be coming up (soon), but if you do, please drop by. No visitors would be more welcome.
And then two Van Dorens, who summered and weekended on their farms in West Cornwall, went.
Farm, Sunday, December 18, 1966.-Mark Van Doren phoned from his place over by Falls Village this morning to say that Irita had just died in New York.
Irita Van Doren, a beautiful, witty, warm, gracious, intelligent southerner and the divorced wife of Carl Van Doren, was editor of the Sunday Herald-Tribune's weekly book review for thirty-seven years-from 1926 to 1963, when she retired at the age of seventy-two. Thus she served the paper even longer than Lewis Gannett, who indeed she selected as the Tribune's first daily book reviewer.
I owed her much. She became not only a good friend but also one of my mentors, sometimes a stern one because underneath her softness and charm was a vein of iron, but always most devoted and helpful. Like scores of others of her friends-she was close to many in our circle, Gunther, Sheean, Dorothy Thompson, Hamilton Fish Armstrong-I adored her. No matter how busy I might be, I could never bear to turn her down when she asked me, as she frequently did, to do a review for Books. She was the one who insisted I take over Gannett's book column for a month.
"The discipline will do you good," she said with a smile. And it did.
I saw a good deal of Irita in New York and even more at her farm in West Cornwall. Often Wendell Willkie would be with her. For years until he died they were inseparable and Willkie owed much to her. She introduced him to the world of books and writers and eventually, I think, became his best political adviser. She also helped him with his speeches and, I think, was largely responsible (with Joe Barnes) for the quality of his book One World, which he wrote after a round-the-world trip early in the war and which was very good and became a best-seller.
The obituaries of Irita spoke of their close "friendship" but in truth they were not only "friends" but lovers. And it was one of the remarkable things about the times that even when Willkie ran for president in 1940, none of his political opponents, including Franklin Roosevelt, whom he was challenging, though they knew the secret, mentioned it publicly. And it never became public. I occasionally saw Mrs. Willkie in those days, and she seemed to accept the situation bravely, though she did not like it. I remember one sad moment at the end of an evening in New York in which at some meeting Willkie had been honored and had made a speech. Both Mrs. Willkie and Irita were there, but Willkie had gone off with Irita at the end. I took Mrs. Willkie home in a taxi. "How I love that man!" she kept saying, fighting back the tears.
Lenox, December 14, 1972. We went over to Cornwall yesterday for the memorial service for Mark Van Doren. A gray wintry day…but it gradually cleared….
Mark was the third member of our Cornwall quartet to go, after Thurber and Gannett.
"My turn soon?" I asked in my diary that night. That was sixteen years ago, as this is written.
Mark Van Doren had died on December 12 at seventy-eight. He was a gentle, sensitive, beloved man, a great teacher and a fine poet. I loved and admired him. And he befriended me and kept after me to go on writing, especially during the years of discouragement. Mark also wrote novels, short stories, and literary criticism; and he would complain that teaching, though he loved it, kept him from his writing. And each summer that I knew him from the early 1940s on he would swear that he was going to give up teaching and spend all his time writing. But he kept putting it off. And this was a boon to Columbia, where he taught for thirty-nine years, and to its students. Indeed, several of his students, who later became writers, would acknowledge their debt to him: John Berryman, Thomas Merton, Lionel Trilling, Allen Ginsberg, Louis Simpson, and Jack Kerouac. Whitaker Chambers, the nemesis of Alger Hiss, called on his former teacher years after he left Columbia and asked him for help in returning to the world of letters after years in the underground of the Communist party as a spy for the Soviet Union. Van Doren gave him letters to literary editors saying that Chambers wrote well. It was the beginning of Chambers's new life.
After the memorial service we went for a wake at the Van Doren house, a lovely eighteenth-century colonial structure in the midst of a hundred acres. The farm was mostly woods but Mark and his two sons, Charles and John, kept the fields around the house mowed. A good many of our Saturday evening powwows had been held here. And now with the passing of this good man, they would become only a memory.
***
There was one other in Cornwall. On a page of my diary is pasted a clip from the New York Times for February 15, 1961, telling of the death there at fifty-one of Stella Adamic, widow of Louis Adamic, the wonderful immigrant writer from Yugoslavia who burst upon the literary scene at the beginning of the 1930s with his book The Native's Return. She was an attractive character in that book which told of Adamic's return with his young American wife to spend a year with his relatives in the old country. After his death-Stella thought he killed himself out of despair at becoming a victim of the postwar witch-hunt-she settled in Cornwall where she was a close friend of the Gannetts and the Van Dorens. Like others of my friends, Stella had been a dancer; later she became a teacher and then a librarian, having returned to college at fifty to earn a master's degree at Columbia in Library Science.
More than eight years later I typed on that old 1961 diary page with the Times clipping an addenda:
Lenox, August 22, 1969. I remember the shock and then the hurt of reading that, as I browsed through the New York Times on a plane headed west out of Chicago. I loved her. I don't think that anyone but us ever knew.
I was now the last of our old Cornwall group, and I would soon become the last survivor in my immediate family. My younger brother, John, had died suddenly of a heart attack at sixty-two in March of 1969; and my older sister, Josephine, went at seventy-three in October of 1973, as the result of the same thing.
I loved them both and often ruminated on their lives. My brother had a fine mind and a sterling character, and though he had a more distinguished career than he realized-he rose to the top of the U.S. Civil Service as an economist in various federal agencies and for some years was a much respected professor of economics at the University of Arizona-I think he felt frustrated at the life he had lived. Actually, he wanted to be a writer. He took early retirement at fifty-nine and settled down to write a novel and a play, some short stories and essays. But it was too late. You had to start earlier.
My sister taught school all of her life after graduating from college, the last quarter of a century at a high school across the Hudson from New York, and she was very good at it and quite content to remain at that level. I suspect it was a lonely life though-no husband, no family, but love perhaps twice, with long years between. She had been engaged in college and found love, I think, in middle age that continued to her death.
My brother had died in California and I was too ill at the time to fly out for the funeral, but for my sister I arranged the things you have to attend to when a member of the family passes away and you are the only one left. I think she would have liked the informal little memorial service at the graveside in Westwood, New Jersey. A fellow teacher and a former student spoke briefly but eloquently on what my sister had meant to the school, its teachers and students. My two daughters each read a poem that I knew my sister had liked, one from John Donne, the other from Dostoevsky. I read one from Euripides: "Not To Live in Darkness."
My diary for Thursday, November 1, 1973, after describing the little ceremony:
…There had been a storm blowing all day Monday and Monday night, with torrential rains and driving winds. But for a few hours on Tuesday morning the storm subsided, the winds died down, the sun came out, the autumn was crisp and clear, as if Providence had smiled on this fond farewell.
And finally I parted with my three closest surviving friends, two of whom I had met in the mid-twenties in Paris, when we were struggling young newspapermen, the third toward the end of my years in Berlin.
The first to go was Joe Barnes. He had been transferred by the New York Herald-Tribune in 1939 from Moscow to Berlin, where he replaced another Barnes and another old friend from the Paris days, Ralph Barnes, who had gone on to London and who would shortly, when the war came, be killed in an RAF bomber shot down returning from a bombing mission against the Italians in the Balkans.
In coming to Berlin from Moscow, Joe Barnes had exchanged one totalitarian dictatorship for another. From the brutalities of Stalin to those of Hitler. He knew the Soviet Union well, spoke fluent Russian, and loved the people and the culture. Germany was new to him, the people as well as the language. And it puzzled him. Yet such was his intelligence and burning curiosity that soon he was writing some of the most perceptive dispatches from Berlin as Hitler pushed Germany ever closer toward war. We soon became fast friends, sharing the same hostility and also, I think, the same fascination, in regard to a regime that in so short a time and with so many ruffians as its leaders had turned the Germans into sheep who would do the bidding of Adolf Hitler, no matter how criminal and barbarian.
In the last summer weeks, full of tension, before the Nazi dictator plunged the world into war on September 1, 1939, Joe and I met nightly after I had done my broadcast and he had finished his dispatch. Often we would walk through the Tiergarten where we could talk without fear of hidden microphones and end up after midnight at the Taverne, a café where the American and British correspondents met after work and where we could chew the fat with our colleagues, exchange ideas and information and escape for a moment the tensions of living and working amid the paranoiac Nazis.
Joe left Berlin that first fall of the war, returning to New York to become foreign editor of the Tribune and then taking leave of that job to become head of the New York branch of the Office of War Information when we got into the war. We saw each other in New York whenever we could and then at the first U.S. Army front in western Germany in 1944 when Joe returned briefly as a Tribune war correspondent. After the war he was again foreign editor of the newspaper, but left it in 1948 to become editor of the New York Star, the successor of P.M., which Marshall Field had bankrolled. The odds against its survival were too great and it folded the next year. Joe then went over to book publishing, joining Simon and Schuster as one of its key editors. It was Joe, as I have mentioned, who interested S&S in publishing The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich and for years he worked closely with me on that book as an editor and friend.
In the years after the war we were neighbors in the country; and it was on his farm or mine in the hills of northwest Connecticut that we often got together to talk about our garden crops, solve the world's problems, commiserate about the intolerance of the McCarthy time-Joe too became a victim-work on the book of mine he was editing, drink a little and laugh a lot, despite, or perhaps because of, the wretched state of the world.
Joe Barnes lay dying from cancer when we finished work on getting to press the next book. He died on February 28, 1970, at his home in New York. He was only sixty-two.
I spoke at the memorial service for Joe Barnes in New York on the afternoon of May 6 that year. The hall was crowded, for he had many friends and many more admirers. Rarely what you say on such occasions is adequate but I did my best to recall an old friend who had touched me profoundly and many others.
And I brought up something I had often ruminated about: the fate of men like Joe Barnes who never quite, I thought, got their due in life. Here was one who had had four distinguished careers, as a foreign correspondent, a newspaper editor, a book editor, and a gifted translator, especially from the Russian. And yet…
The ups and downs of fortune often play havoc with the use and the impact of the talents of a man. And there were some among Joe's friends and admirers who thought his brilliant gifts had sometimes gone wasted. If so, I would say it is our country's, our society's, loss.
Joe lived in a time when this country squandered-or ignored-the contributions of many a gifted citizen, when what a man like Joe had to offer: a keen intelligence, a lucid mind, an incorruptible character, vast experience of the world, a capacity for penetrating the cant-when these qualities were not often appreciated.
But if Joe had any feelings of this-and I never heard him express them-he would have said, I think, that THAT was the luck of life. He did not complain. He worked; he thought; he taught; he reasoned. He did what he could to shed a little light in the darkness….
After the memorial service John Gunther and I walked over to a pub on Lexington Avenue for a drink and a chance to catch up on each other's news. We had not seen much of each other recently for certain personal reasons and because I was now living permanently in the country and he had stayed in New York. John was just back from Australia and to my surprise I saw that he was a sick man. It wasn't only that he was exhausted from the strenuous labors in Australia and the long trip back. His face had no color and he was breathing heavily as he talked, and coughing. He said he had given up smoking but it was obvious he was not cured of an old emphysema. We had a few drinks, discussed the going of Joe Barnes and of so many other old friends and colleagues. We updated each other on our personal lives-mine had changed the most. He congratulated me on the France book, which had just come out.
"Don't pay any attention to the brickbats," he added. There had been plenty of these this time. "Remember, we all get them."
Then he talked of what it had been like in Australia. I had nagged him for years to do one final book in his famous "Inside" series. That would be Inside Australia, the last continent to be covered, the last of the "Insiders." He had run out of continents. Though not in the best of health-he had been in the hospital to try to find out what was ailing him and he was still having problems with his eyesight after cataract operations in both eyes-he had plunged with his usual energy and high spirits into research for the Australian book and then spent several exhausting months roaming the continent from one end to another, moved on to New Zealand and finally to New Guinea. A postcard dated February 2 from Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia alerted me that he was on his way home. Now this spring he had started writing. He was tired but, as always when he began to write an "Inside" book, full of enthusiasm for it.
"And when THAT'S finished," he said, half exploding, "I'm going to take a hell of a long rest. No more continents to conquer. No more 'Inside' books to do." They had brought him fame and fortune.
We finished our drinks and our talk and departed. I was glad I had seen him again. In Vienna, where we'd both been stationed in the 1930s, he for the Chicago Daily News, I for the Chicago Tribune, we and our wives had seen a great deal of each other. And it had been the same when we came back to live in New York. Our tastes were hardly the same. John loved to give big parties to which he invited celebrities. (It was at his house that I had met Greta Garbo.) I preferred a quieter, simpler life. John liked to go with friends to plush restaurants. With that boyishness which he never entirely lost he would confess that he got a kick out of being made something of by a head-waiter. I rather disliked plush restaurants and their kowtowing head waiters.
I loved the country, the more so as I grew older. John preferred the city. After he married Jane, they used to spend part of the summer at her parents' retreat in northern New Hampshire. But I gathered John was never very enthusiastic about spending too much of the summer there, or in any other rural place. He would grow restless to get back to the Big Apple. For years we tried-in vain-to interest him in buying a place in Cornwall-he was also a good friend of Gannett and Irita Van Doren there.
Still, we had a lot in common: our long experience together in Europe, a hunger for history and literature, pride in our journalism and in our books, a burning curiosity about people and life and the world. And we had had a lasting friendship over nearly half a century.
I thought of these things as I walked back in the failing light of a lovely spring afternoon in New York to where I was staying. Twenty-two days later John Gunther was dead. Cancer had struck him. It was May 29. He was sixty-eight.
***
It was cancer too that killed the last of my old friends and colleagues, Vincent Sheean. Jimmy died at Arolo on the shores of Lago Maggiore on March 15, 1975. He was seventy-five. Unlike John, he saw it coming. He had come back to New York the previous fall for treatment and stayed until the first of the year, when he gave it up as hopeless and returned to Italy. We had talked frequently on the phone and despite his ailment and the debilitation of the treatments (cobalt, for one) he was in high spirits. I planned several times to go into New York to spend a few days with him but something at the last minute always prevented it. Later I would bitterly regret it. When I flew over to Europe that spring for what I had first hoped would be a reunion it was too late.
In Europe some used to call us the "Chicago Kids." John Gunther and I had been born in the city and Jimmy, who grew up in a nearby town in Illinois, had come to Chicago to attend the university, where he met John. All three of us worked abroad for Chicago newspapers.
Four years older than I, Sheean had gone to Paris in 1922, got a job working part-time for the Paris edition and part-time as assistant to the Chicago Tribune's Paris correspondent, Henry Wales, and by the time I arrived in 1925 he was already a legendary foreign correspondent, more famous than his boss. That year he had penetrated the French and Spanish lines in Morocco to interview Abd-el-Krim, the rebel leader who had driven the Spanish army out of the Riff Mountains and was holding his own against the French, commanded by no less a figure than the great war hero of Verdun, Marshal Henri Pétain. Several times Sheean had narrowly escaped death as he came under fire from Spanish and French artillery and bombs, and twice he had almost been executed as a spy by the Arabs. His talk with the rebel leader, then very much in the news, and his reporting in depth about the revolt in the Riff was a world scoop and made Sheean famous overnight.
Shortly after his return to Paris from the Riff, he was fired by Wales for taking too much time off for dinner one evening-or so Jimmy always claimed.
"I was never again employed in a newspaper office," he wrote later in Personal History, "and never wanted to be."
But that did not end his journalistic career. Though from that time on he would devote most of his time and energy to writing books, he took on important reporting assignments from such agencies as the North American Newspaper Alliance and contributed dozens of articles to the magazines.
In Personal History, Jimmy did not mention that he did indeed return to employment in "a newspaper office." This was on the Paris Times, a fantastic sort of non-newspaper that Jimmy, with a number of other writers, worked on in 1926. Most of the copy came out of their heads since the newspaper had no news sources. It was a place Sheean and others went back to, they said, when they were broke and wanted to spend a few months in Paris between books or assignments. It was, in fact, in 1926 in Paris that Jimmy and I first became good friends; and though there were years when we were operating on opposite sides of the globe, we remained in touch. Then there would be times, after the Second World War, when we lived in the same city, New York, and saw more of one another.
I always thought Sheean was the best writer of us three "Chicago Kids," certainly the most graceful; and though a few regarded him as something of a hard-drinking playboy, he was strangely enough the most learned of us three. He was a much better linguist and he knew better his history and philosophy. But there was never any conscious feeling of rivalry or even of competitiveness among us. Our books certainly did not compete. And even when Gunther and I were stationed in Vienna for rival Chicago newspapers, neither of us felt any personal rivalry or competitiveness, a situation that would have displeased our editors, had they known of it. I think we all felt that luck had smiled on us when our early books, Jimmy's Personal History in 1935, John's Inside Europe in 1936, and my Berlin Diary in 1941 made the best-seller lists and gave us financial independence at least for a while.
Vincent Sheean, to use the name he wrote under (it was his middle name; his first name was James, hence "Jimmy" to his friends), had an uncanny sense of when certain world figures were about to die. The most notable example of this involved me. One morning in November 1947, in New York, Jimmy phoned and insisted I come over for lunch.
"I'm trying to finish a book," I said. "Like you, I never break for lunch."
"It's terribly urgent," Jimmy said. "You must come. I have to see you. Today! For lunch!"
So I went over to his apartment, cursing him as I came in.
"I'm sorry," he said. "But I had to see you. I want to talk to you about Gandhi, with whom you spent those two wonderful years. He is going to die! Soon!"
"How do you know?" I asked. India that late fall was in upheaval. It had gained its independence from Britain on August 15, 1947. Gandhi had won his revolution but he was heartbroken that the Moslems had broken away to form the Islamic nation of Pakistan. Deeply religious though he was, he had fought for a united, secular, independent India. Worse to him, Hindus and Moslems were now butchering each other, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. There was chaos and wholesale murder. Gandhi was fasting "unto death" to try to stop the carnage. It was a weapon he had often used to obtain his goals. He had always recovered from his fasts. He always looked frail, but he was made of iron.
Jimmy ignored my question.
"I have to see Gandhi before he dies. There is something that he can teach me about the meaning, purpose and significance of life."
He asked me to give him a letter of introduction to Gandhi and another to Jawahrlal Nehru, who was now India's first prime minister. Jimmy left a few days later for India. But he dawdled in Europe, as he often had, and in Egypt, and lingered on in Pakistan. The Moslems had always fascinated him. He later said he needed time to prepare himself for Gandhi. Though he still had a premonition of Gandhi's imminent death, he thought he had a little time.
Not much, as it turned out. Not as much as he had hoped.
Gandhi had returned from Calcutta to Delhi in the fall of 1947. Unable to stop the Hindu-Moslem slaughter in the new nation's capital, he had once more begun a fast on January 13, 1948, in order to bring the two peoples together. Jimmy arrived in Delhi from Pakistan the next day, but Gandhi was already too weak to see him. On January 17, Gandhi's doctors issued a bulletin saying the Mahatma would not survive more than two or three days longer unless he gave up his fast. He was seventy-eight and already exhausted by his struggles to halt the killing. Next day the Hindu and Moslem leaders signed an agreement for peace and Gandhi gave up his fasting. But he was not strong enough to see Sheean until January 27, when they had their first talk. There was another the next day and they arranged to meet again on Friday, the thirtieth, immediately after Gandhi's evening prayer meeting.
Sheean and another old colleague, Edgar Snow, waited in the crowd of some five hundred worshippers who assembled for the prayer meeting on the lawn of Birla House for Gandhi to appear. They stood by the small platform from which Gandhi conducted the prayers and the singing of hymns. Gandhi, still very frail from his fasting, arrived, leaning heavily on the arms of two young women aides. He greeted Sheean and Snow and others clustered by the platform. Suddenly three shots rang out. Crying "He Ram!" ("O God!") Gandhi fell to the ground, dead. (The assassin, a crackpot Hindu, was caught, tried, found guilty of murder, and executed.)
For two days Sheean, in shock, wandered about Delhi in a daze, unable to speak. He said later he had no memory of those forty-eight hours. But later he had a wonderful memory of what Gandhi had meant to him finally, especially after those two meetings in Delhi just before the great man died, and he wrote beautifully of it in a book that came out the next year, Lead Kindly Light. It had been Gandhi's favorite Christian hymn. The Mahatma had often joined heartily in singing it at prayer meetings I had attended in Delhi in an earlier time.
"Depressed at thinking of Jimmy gone," I wrote in my diary. "He filled so many bright spots in my life-often in his letters, though our correspondence was desultory over nearly fifty years." Leafing through a file, I came across a letter from Jimmy from Rome in November 1963 that I thought was typical and that tells something of the man. I copied it down in my diary. It came in response to a review I had written of Jimmy's book Dorothy and Red, a wonderful tale of the stormy and disastrous marriage of Dorothy Thompson and Sinclair Lewis. Jimmy had been one of Dorothy's closest friends and he and Lewis were friends also.
Dear Bill:
…I wanted to thank you for the kindness of your review of my book, D&R.…I don't mean that it was a favorable review (although it was that also) but just that it was kind….
But you've always been like that. I have never forgotten when you first came to us in Paris with your eagerness and aspiration, cheeks like famine and eyes like the far-off stars….
Do you know the difference between life and time? I've only just found it in Seneca, in pursuit of my present endeavors. Life is the moment of knowing (it is, however briefly, wisdom) and all the rest of the mortal existence is simply time, a notation. Seneca quotes a Greek poet (now lost) who is thought by some to be Menander, by others to be Euripides, who says in one line, We live the smallest part of our lives, the rest is only time….
Thanks for the lurid postcard from Paris last year when you said This is a nice city, Remember? I do remember.
My diary that day ended:
I am the last of the three of us (Gunther, Sheean and I) who came to Europe in the early or mid-twenties out of raw, wild Chicago (in my case, also from Iowa-in any case, out of the Midwest) and made a certain mark first as correspondents and later with our books. John and Jimmy were a little older, by four or five years.
It leaves me lonely.
Dinah, Jimmy's widow, felt it.
Arolo, 16th April, 1975.
Darling Bill,
Thank you for your lovely cable. Now you are the only one of the great ones left. Hold on, my friend, and don't you dare quit.
Love,
Dinah
Hold on with what? With whom? I have now to go back six years to my diary.
Lenox, Feb. 3, 1969-At 1:15 P.M. today I finished the France book, writing "The End" on page 1618….
By that time my personal life was in shambles, and I had moved to a new place. Tess and I had broken up after a marriage of thirty-six years.
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