CHAPTER 1
Twice before, in 1940 and 1944, I had got back from the war in time for Christmas. And now, as the holiday approached in 1945, I was coming home for the third time. For good, I hoped.
The war was over. Germany, which had started it on the first day of September 1939, had surrendered unconditionally on May 7. Japan had given up on August 14.
I would never forget those first August days when the long war ended. The news was almost too tremendous to grasp. How could you be prepared for the news that burst upon us on Monday, August 6? That day we had dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, a large city in Japan of which I had not previously heard, just as I had never heard before of an atom bomb. The force from which the sun draws its awesome power had for the first time, ever, been unleashed by us to slaughter human beings and wipe out their cities.
President Truman had taken to the air to tell us about it. The single bomb over Hiroshima, he said, had the explosive force of twenty thousand tons of TNT. The extent of the damage it had caused, the War Department declared, was not yet known. An impenetrable cloud of dust and smoke reaching up to the heavens had masked "the target area" from U.S. reconnaissance planes. But a bomb of such terrifying force was bound to have caused appalling loss of human life and property. The additional destructiveness of radioactive fallout was not mentioned. Only a handful of insiders, the little band of American scientific geniuses who in great secrecy had built the bomb in the sands of New Mexico, knew that radioactive fallout might in the end be the most frightful consequence of all. This would dawn on the rest of us later.
What concerned us at the time was not so much the capacity of the bomb for unbelievable destruction-no one thought of it, as we later would, as threatening to blow up the planet-but whether the bomb would terrify the Japanese into surrendering and ending the war. When that occurred after we had dropped a second bomb, this time on Nagasaki, everyone on the globe, I think, friend, enemy, or neutral, was immensely relieved that the war was over, that the mass killing and the terrible destruction would cease. We would have blessed peace on what was left of a stricken world.
Somehow we felt, though, that the planet would never be the same again. The explosion of the two American atom bombs over Japan had ended one age for mankind. We stood suddenly, apprehensive and unprepared, at the dawn of a new one. In its editorial that morning, I noted, the New York Times posed the problem and asked the crucial question:
A revolution in science and a revolution in warfare have occurred on the same day.…Civilization and humanity can now survive only if there is a revolution in mankind's political thinking. But can mankind grow up quickly enough to win the race between civilization and disaster?
It was a question that would hang over the rest of my life like a dark, threatening cloud, and cast its shadow over this book from the first page to the last. A half century later there is still no answer and no prospect of one. The mad race is still on and no one can yet be sure how it will end and how soon.
***
That spring CBS had sent me out to San Francisco to cover the founding of the United Nations. I had asked to be sent back to Europe to report on what would certainly be our final triumph over Nazi Germany. I had spent so much of my life writing and broadcasting about that country, had been in Berlin when World War II was launched six years before, and had observed at first hand Germany's amazing early triumphs in Poland and in the west, that I very much wanted to be in on its defeat, which had seemed so improbable in the first years of the war. This was not because I felt vindictive. It just seemed like poetic justice for one who had had to report for so long on the arrogance and savagery of Hitler and his thugs when they first conquered Germany and then most of Europe. But the powers-that-be at the network decided they wanted me to go to San Francisco-perhaps because I was the only one on the staff who had covered the old League of Nations in Geneva.
Now that victory over Germany in Europe and over Japan in Asia seemed certain, perhaps the most important thing to report on was no longer the war but the kind of peace the victorious Allies were going to make. Just as after World War I the victors at Versailles had set up the League of Nations, a dream of President Woodrow Wilson, to prevent further wars and maintain the peace, now they were meeting in San Francisco to establish a new world body called the United Nations, hoping it would do a better job than its predecessor. Strangely enough, I, who had seen the old League flounder in Geneva because the Big Powers were too nationalistic and too selfish to yield an inch of their sovereignty to the common good, was blandly optimistic about the chances this time for the United Nations. I was naïve enough to believe they had learned a lesson from history, especially from the suffering and sacrifice they had gone through in the Second World War. I thought their leaders, even though not very bright, knew our small planet could not survive a third world war-and this before the A-bomb was dropped and made it certain.
So from New York I set off for San Francisco on April 20, 1945, with high hopes. Not even the anticipated antagonism between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R., which were emerging from the war as the world's two superpowers, could dampen my enthusiasm. After all, I reflected, Americans might be hysterical about the terrible Bolsheviks, as the Russians were hysterical about the terrible capitalist, imperialist Americans, but despite the paranoia and the rhetoric, there seemed to me no fundamental conflicts of interest between the two countries. There never had been, whether Russia was Czarist or Bolshevik.
In this I would prove to be naïve, too. But, for a moment, as the statesmen from fifty nations gathered from the far corners of the earth in the beautiful city by the bay, there was an atmosphere of goodwill and a determination to succeed. Jan Christiaan Smuts, the prime minister of South Africa, summed it up. He was the sole survivor of those who had played leading parts in shaping the League of Nations at Versailles after the last war. He had seen it slowly fail. He thought the proposed United Nations was better than the old League. He also believed, he told me, that this was our last chance.
Smuts thought it would be better, for one thing, because this time the world's two greatest powers would be in it from the beginning. One of the weaknesses of the old League had been that the United States, whose president had inspired it, spurned it and stayed out, and that the Soviet Union had not been invited to join until toward the end, when it was doomed. Smuts also believed the U.N. would have more teeth to enforce the peace-even, if necessary, by the employment of armed force, which the League had never had. I could not conceive in those heady spring days that my fierce belief in the future of the United Nations, shared by so many there, would turn out to be as illusory as that I had entertained as a youngster back in the 1920s about the League of Nations.
The conference of fifty nations opened officially on April 25, 1945, in the resplendent opera house, built as a war memorial. My euphoria, my high hopes, were reflected in my diary that evening.
…Here were expressed today all the hopes we have of peace. In Berlin a maniac's hopes of world conquest were being buried in the debris of a once great city. [Russian troops that day were reported approaching the center of the city, where Adolf Hitler was believed holed up in the Chancellery.] Here in this beautiful community along the ocean we call Pacific, more decent hopes were being born.
…The president of the United States [Truman had just succeeded Roosevelt thirteen days before] broadcast to the delegates: "In your hands rests our future. Make certain that another war is impossible."
Meanwhile from the war we still had, tremendous news was beginning to break. My diary tells of the climactic, blazing end.
Sunday, April 22. The Russians are within three miles of Unter den Linden in the heart of Berlin. The city is in flames.…Somewhere south of Berlin a junction between the American and Russian armies is imminent….
***
Sunday, April 29. A weekend for you!
American troops have entered Munich and Milan, birthplaces, respectively, of Nazism and Fascism. The British Eighth Army has liberated Venice. Nine-tenths of Berlin is now in Russian hands.
But the greatest news of all comes from Milan.
Benito Mussolini, the swaggering little sawdust Caesar, is dead. He was executed by Italian patriots at four twenty P.M. yesterday in a little mountain village near Como. Today his body is hanging in the Piazza Loreto in Milan.…According to the Milan Free Radio the Duce's mistress, Clara Petacci, was also executed, and the tyrant's body, after it was cut down, lay on hers in the Milan gutter for all to see.
After Il Duce, Der Führer?
Indeed. Adolf Hitler's time had come too.
On Tuesday, May 1, I was lunching with some members of the American delegation at the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco when a bellboy summoned me to the telephone. It was our local CBS office. Come quick, they said. Hitler is dead!
Though not surprised, given the latest news, I found it hard to believe. Over so many years Hitler had stridden the earth as an arrogant, ruthless conqueror, first of Germany and then of most of Europe, that I had not imagined him in my time in Berlin coming to such a sorry end, trapped at last in his lair by the despised Russians, whose country he had without provocation or warning set out to destroy four years before. Now it was his own country that was utterly destroyed, the war he had started so irresponsibly, irretrievably lost.
I hurried to the CBS studios, where they put me on the air to give some first reactions to the death of the Nazi tyrant. It was difficult to articulate them so suddenly, and I did not do very well. A golden opportunity missed! And one I had waited for so long! But it would take more than a few hours or even days to express adequately my thoughts on the impact of Adolf Hitler on his country, on me, and on the rest of the world. He had been such an evil genius.
I find a note at the end of a long diary entry for that day:
To write some time: A summing-up of…Hitler. Your personal impressions…Remember the first time you saw him, in Nuremberg in September 1934, when he did not personally impress you so much? When was the last time you actually saw him? I think it was in the Reichstag on July 18, 1940, after he had overrun Denmark and Norway, the Lowlands and France and was making what he thought was a magnanimous peace bid to Britain.
Now the man was dead. How had he died? I wondered. And who, if anyone, had taken his place? Göring, the Number Two? Goebbels, the Number Three? Or Himmler, the chief of the Gestapo, who had been reported in recent days to be in contact with the Swedes about a surrender in the West? CBS had recorded the broadcasts from Germany telling of Hitler's end.
The news first came from the radio station in Hamburg.
ANNOUNCER: Achtung! Achtung! The German Broadcasting Company has a serious, important message for the German people. It is reported from the Führer's headquarters that our Führer, Adolf Hitler, fighting to the last breath against Bolshevism, fell for Germany this afternoon in his operational headquarters in the Reich Chancellery. On April 30 the Führer appointed Grand Admiral Doenitz his successor….
The admiral, a dour, thin-faced old submarine commander, came on the air. Hitler, he said, had died "a hero's death" fighting to the last "the frightful danger of Bolshevism." That struggle, he went on, would continue. Against the British and Americans only a defensive war would be fought, and if they continued to drive into Germany they would be "solely responsible for the spreading of Bolshevism in Europe."
Doenitz's broadcast, I thought, must have been written by Goebbels, the propaganda minister. Would anyone at this late date, even Russian-hating diehard Americans, fall for the old Nazi line about Hitler's fighting against Bolshevism? It was Hitler's embrace of Bolshevism in the pact with Stalin in August 1939 that had enabled the Nazi dictator to launch the war.
I doubted very much that Hitler had died "a hero's death, fighting to the last breath against Bolshevism." I was sure he had killed himself to avoid being captured by the Russians. But the lie would be necessary to perpetuate the Hitler myth, which was based on so many lies.
With Hitler gone, Germany's surrender had to be imminent. It came a week later, on May 7. The war in Europe was over-after five years, eight months, and six days of fighting that had almost destroyed the ancient continent, homeland of our Western civilization, and slaughtered millions upon millions and maimed as many more.
***
That summer our country did what it had failed to do after the First World War. It joined a world body that it was hoped would keep the peace. The Charter of the United Nations was signed by fifty nations at San Francisco on June 26-"a day in history!" I noted enthusiastically in my diary. President Truman, disregarding his prepared speech to the delegates, had begun by saying: "Oh, what a great day this can be in history!" It had not been easy, as the president remarked. "That we have a Charter at all," he said, "is a great wonder!" It had come about largely because the United States and the Soviet Union, after quarreling bitterly and endlessly, had finally agreed to compose their differences.
Not a few Americans doubted that the Senate, which had refused to allow us to join the old League after the first war, would agree to our adhering to the United Nations. But the times had changed. America had matured. Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman, unlike Woodrow Wilson, had wisely made it a bipartisan issue by enlisting the aid of the Senate and other Republican leaders in hammering out an agreement in San Francisco. On July 28 the Senate ratified the U.N. Charter by a vote of 89 to 2.
The two nations that had not been members of the old League when it was formed after the first war, the Soviet Union because it had not been invited, the United States because it chose to stay out, were now, as the world's only two superpowers, to be the backbone of the U.N.
CHAPTER 2
At the beginning of October that year, I went back to where the war had started to see at first hand what had happened to the Master Race and its country, to get if I could the story of its last desperate hours. I wanted to find out what kind of an end Adolf Hitler really had had, and I intended to proceed finally, in late November, to Nuremberg, where the trial of the surviving Nazi war criminals was scheduled to begin. Among other things, I hoped to learn more about an unbelievable horror they had perpetrated, the news of which was beginning to surface: the destruction of the European Jews in the ovens of the Nazi extermination camps.
I have in another place described that return to Germany, which I fervently hoped would be the last before I went home for good. But perhaps a few words about it would not be out of place in this last volume of memoirs. This then can be a sort of farewell for me to the Third Reich and its barbarian leader, Adolf Hitler. There is a time to leave a place once and for all.
***
I got back to Berlin on Tuesday, October 30, 1945. I'll never forget that first view from the air as we circled the capital before landing. The great city was demolished almost beyond recognition. I scribbled down a few notes for my diary.
The center of the capital around the Leipzigerstrasse and the Friedrichstrasse a vast acreage of rubble. Most of the little streets I knew, gone, erased as off a map. The railway stations-Potsdamerbahnhof, Anhalterbahnhof, Lehrterbahnhof-gaunt shells. The Imperial Palace of the Kaisers roofless, some of its wings pulverized, and here and there the outer walls battered in. The Tiergarten, like any other battlefield from the air, pockmarked with shell holes, the old spreading trees that I had known, bare stumps. And as far as you can see in all directions, a great wilderness of debris, dotted with roofless burnt-out buildings that look like mousetraps with the low autumn sun shining through the spaces where windows had been.
For days, often with my CBS colleague, Howard Smith, I prowled the ruins of the great city. My diary reminds me that the sorriest figures we saw in the streets were the demobilized German soldiers-especially the ones who had come back from POW camps in Russia and whom the Western Allied commanders were giving them their freedom, we having already more POWs than we could find accommodation for. These soldiers of Hitler had been so cocky and confident when I accompanied them through Poland in 1939 and Holland, Belgium, and France that spring of 1940. But now!
They hobble along in their rags, footsore from walking in worn-out shoes stuffed with newspapers, their uniforms, which in my day, they kept so smart, tattered and filthy.…On a street in Wedding we stopped to talk to a group of them scraping along.…Were these the crack soldiers who goosestepped so arrogantly through Poland, France, Russia…? These the Herrenvolk?…They are beat, dirty, tired, and hungry.
"Where you come from?" I asked them.
"From Stalingrad," they said. "Alles kaputt." They grinned and you could see that few of them, though they were young men, had any teeth left. They begged for cigarettes and we passed a pack around. Then they shuffled and hobbled away.
My diary for Saturday, November 3, in Berlin:
So this is the end of Hitler's thousand-year Reich!
The end of the awful tyranny, the bloody war, the whole long nightmare that some of us American correspondents began covering a decade ago in this once proud capital.
It is something to see-here where it ended. And it is indescribable.
How can you find words to convey the picture of a great capital destroyed almost beyond recognition; of a once mighty nation that has ceased to exist; of a conquering people who were so brutally arrogant and so blindly sure of their mission as the master race when I departed from here five years ago, and whom you now see poking about their ruins, broken, dazed, shivering, hungry, without will or purpose, reduced like animals to foraging for food and seeking shelter in order to cling to life for another day.
I found out something that first week in Berlin that depressed me, though it did not surprise me. The German people did not regret having started the war, only having lost it. I talked to a number of Germans about that. If only Hitler, they said, had listened to his generals during the Russian campaign; if only he hadn't declared war on the United States; if only the whole world had not ganged up on poor Germany-they would have won and been spared their present sufferings. I found no sense of guilt or remorse in Berlin. Nor any resentment against Hitler for having landed them in such a mess. As for the terrible crimes inflicted on the occupied peoples, they seemed indifferent.
On Sunday, November 4, I did my first broadcast from Berlin. It seemed a little strange to say the opening line. "This is Berlin!" The last time I had begun a broadcast that way had been on December 3, 1940-almost five years before-when the Nazi German conquerors ruled over most of Europe, from the Vistula to the Atlantic, from the North Cape to Spain. Now they were too demoralized and broken to be able to rule even themselves. Germany was being run by the victorious Allies.
***
I spent a good deal of my time in Berlin that fall trying to find out how Hitler met his end. In San Francisco when word came in on May 1 of his death, I had been very doubtful, as I noted, of the official account. I was sure he had not died "a hero's death" at all but had killed himself to prevent being captured by the despised Bolsheviks, whose Red Army troops had surrounded his Chancellery and were about to storm it.
This turned out to be the case. The end, when it came, was bizarre enough, like so much in this strange man's life. In the golden years for Nazism, when Hitler was riding high, we correspondents in Berlin had often called him mad. But he wasn't really, at least no madder than other totalitarian dictators, Josef Stalin, for example. He had been, like the Soviet leader, a cold, calculating, brutal tyrant.
But in the last year or so, after the disasters in Russia and then in the west had doomed him and his regime, and especially in the final months, Adolf Hitler had degenerated into a wild and often insane man. The long strain of conducting the war, the shock of the defeats, the unhealthy life without fresh air or exercise in the various underground headquarters bunkers that he rarely left, his giving way to ever more frequent and violent temper tantrums, and, finally, the poisonous drugs he took daily on the advice of his quack physician, Dr. Theodor Morell, had left him a physical and mental wreck. When his headquarters in East Prussia were blown up by a bomb planted by Colonel Klaus von Stauffenberg, leader of a small group of military dissidents, he had barely escaped being killed, but he had been hurt. The explosion had not only injured one arm but had broken the tympanic membranes of both ears, which contributed to his spells of dizziness.
More and more, as the news from the eastern and western fronts grew worse, he gave way to hysterical rage. General Heinz Guderian, the next to the last of several chiefs of the General Staff, became a special victim of these tantrums. When on February 13, 1945, he insisted on trying to evacuate by sea several German divisions cut off by the Russians in the Baltic area, the Führer turned on him.
His fists raised, his cheeks flushed with rage, his whole body trembling [the general later recounted], the man stood there in front of me, beside himself with fury and having lost all self-control. After each outburst Hitler would stride up and down the carpet edge, then suddenly stop immediately before me and hurl his next accusation in my face. He was almost screaming, his eyes seemed to pop out of his face and the veins stood out in his temples.[1]
On another occasion Guderian's chief of staff had had to pull him away by his uniform to escape Hitler's punching him.
It was in this state of mind and health that the Nazi dictator made one of the last momentous-and insane-decisions of his life. He issued orders on March 19 to make Germany an utter wasteland. Everything that sustained life was to be destroyed-factories, buildings, transport centers, railway rolling stock, car and truck parks, stores of food and clothing-to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy. It was an order condemning the surviving German people to death, for after such destruction there would be nothing left to sustain them. When Albert Speer, minister for war production, protested in a face-to-face showdown with the Führer, Hitler replied:
"If the war is lost, the nation will also perish. This fate is inevitable. There is no necessity to take into consideration the basis which the people will need to continue a most primitive existence. On the contrary, it will be better to destroy these things ourselves because this nation will have proved to be the weaker one and the future will belong to the stronger eastern nation [Russia]. Besides, those who will remain after the battle are only the inferior ones, for the good ones have been killed."[2]
His own personal fate having been sealed, the crumbling dictator was not interested in the survival of the German people for whom he had always professed such boundless love and devotion.
On April 16, 1945, Zhukov's Russian armies jumped off from their bridgeheads over the Oder River and on the afternoon of April 21 they reached the outskirts of Berlin. On April 25 patrols of the U.S. 69th Infantry Division met forward elements of the Soviet 58th Guards Division at Torgau on the Elbe River, some seventy-five miles south of Berlin. North and South Germany were severed. Adolf Hitler was cut off in Berlin.
He had planned to leave the capital on April 20, his fifty-sixth birthday, for Obersalzberg and there direct the last stand of the Third Reich in the legendary vastness of Barbarossa. Most of the ministries had already moved south with their trucks full of state papers and frightened officials anxious to get out of doomed Berlin. The Führer himself had sent most of the members of his household staff to Berchtesgaden ten days before to prepare his beloved mountain villa, the Berghof, for his coming. But he kept putting off his departure.
On April 15 his mistress, Eva Braun, arrived in Berlin from Bavaria to join him. Very few in Germany knew of her existence and even fewer of her relationship to Adolf Hitler. For more than twelve years she had been his mistress. I myself that November of 1945, trying to fit together what pieces I could find to make a truthful account of the last days of Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich, was astounded to learn it. In all the years I had worked in Berlin I had never heard of this liaison. Party hacks had told me plenty of stories of Hitler's alleged involvement with other women-but never with Eva Braun. So far as I had been able to find out, Hitler's only great love had been for his youthful niece, Geli Raubal, whom he had driven to suicide in Munich two years before he became chancellor. Probably, I now learned, he never loved Eva Braun but he liked her companionship, though he kept her largely out of sight, rarely allowing her to come to Berlin.
"She was," Erich Kempka, the Führer's chauffeur, would later say, "the unhappiest woman in Germany. She spent most of her life waiting for Hitler."
Judging by photographs of her, she was not a very attractive woman. Apparently she was shallow enough, spending much of her time reading cheap novels and picture-magazines, seeing trashy films, and grooming herself. She was no Pompadour or Lola Montez. But Hitler obviously felt strongly enough about her to invite her to come to Berlin and share his end. There seems no doubt that she wanted to share it. She had no desire, she confided to an acquaintance after her arrival, to live in a Germany without Adolf Hitler. "It would not be fit to live in for a true German," she said. Dr. and Frau Goebbels agreed with her.
Hitler's birthday on April 20 passed quietly enough despite the bad news from the rapidly disintegrating fronts. All the bigwig Nazis gathered in the underground bunker to offer the Führer birthday congratulations: Göring, Goebbels, Himmler, Ribbentrop, and Bormann, as well as the military chiefs still in favor: Admiral Doenitz, Field Marshal Keitel, Generals Jodl and Krebs-the last-named the latest and final chief of the Army General Staff. (As the defeats grew, Hitler had kept sacking them.)
The Nazi dictator did not strike his guests as particularly depressed, for all the disastrous news pouring in. He was still confident, as he had told his generals three days before, "that the Russians were going to suffer their bloodiest defeat of all right here in Berlin." The generals knew better and at the regular military powwow after the birthday celebration they urged the Leader to leave Berlin for the south. In a day or two, they explained, the Russians would cut off the last escape route. Hitler hesitated. He agreed to set up two separate commands in case the Russians and Americans made their junction at the Elbe-one for the north, the other for the south.
That night of the twentieth there was a general getaway from the capital, but Hitler declined to join it. Two of the Führer's most trusted and veteran lieutenants left: Himmler and Göring. The fat, bemedaled chief of the Luftwaffe, whose failures were contributing to the German collapse, got away at the head of a long motor caravan whose trucks were filled with booty from his fabulous estate, Karinhall. Each of these old guard Nazis, it seems, departed convinced that his beloved Führer would soon be dead and that he would succeed him. They were never to see him again, they who had been at his side since the early days of the party. Nor was another notorious Nazi, the fatuous foreign minister, Ribbentrop. That night he also scurried for safer parts.
Hitler let them go. He himself had not quite given up. The day after his birthday he ordered S.S. General Felix Steiner to launch an all-out counterattack on the Russians in the southern suburbs of Berlin. Every available soldier was to be thrown into the battle, including Luftwaffe ground troops.
"Any commander who holds back his forces," Hitler shouted at General Karl Koller, the harassed air force chief of staff, who had not followed Göring to safety, "will forfeit his life in five hours. You yourself will guarantee with your head that the last man is thrown in."
All through the next couple of days the raging warlord waited impatiently for news of Steiner's counterattack. It never came. There was no Steiner attack. It had existed only in the feverish mind of the desperate dictator. When he realized it he broke down.
All day long on April 22 he had been on the telephone, as he had been the day before, trying to find out how General Steiner's attack was progressing. No one knew. General Koller sent some planes up to see, but they could not find Steiner's troops, even though they were supposed to be fighting only two or three miles from the bunker. Nor could anyone find Steiner. Not even Keitel and Jodl, the two top army chiefs. But they had further bad news for their commander in chief. The withdrawal of troops from the north of Berlin to support Steiner in the south had so weakened the defenses there that the Russians had broken through. Their tanks, Hitler was told, were now within the city limits.
Confronted with reality, the supreme commander blew up. All the surviving witnesses agree: Hitler completely lost control of himself. As one described it:
This was the end, he shrieked. Everyone had deserted him. There was nothing but treason, lies, corruption and cowardice. All was over. Very well, he would stay on in Berlin. He would personally take over the defense of the capital. The others could leave, if they wished. In this place he would meet his end.[3]
The others tried to calm him down. There was still hope if the supreme commander retired to the south, where two German armies were still intact. General Jodl-and he was the only one-was brutally frank. In his view, the commander in chief was deserting the command of his troops and shirking his responsibility to them at the worst moment of the war. "You can't direct anything from here," Jodl told him to his face. "Without a staff how can you direct anything?"
But the deteriorating dictator was beyond reasoning with. He ordered Keitel and Jodl to fly south and take over command of the remaining armed forces. He would stay.
Late that night an S.S. general, Gottlob Berger, a true believer in Nazism and Hitler, arrived at the bunker. To his shock he found the Leader "a broken man-finished." Berger ventured to express his admiration to Hitler for his courage in remaining in Berlin. For a time the great man did not respond.
Then suddenly he shrieked: "Everyone has deceived me! No one has told me the truth! The Armed Forces have lied to me!" He went on and on in a loud voice. Then his face went bluish purple. I thought he was going to have a stroke….[4]
Two days later, on April 24, Hanna Reitsch, a famed woman test pilot, who at the risk of her life had flown in with General Ritter von Greim of the air force, found her revered Leader in even a worse state. She and Greim had landed their small plane on the east-west axis, the broad avenue that ran from the Brandenburg Gate through the Tiergarten, already under Russian artillery and anti-aircraft fire. One flak shell had hit their plane and shattered Greim's foot. Hitler came into the clinic where a physician was dressing the general's wound.
"Do you know why I have called you?" Hitler asked Greim, who said he did not.
"Because Hermann Göring has betrayed and deserted both me and the Fatherland."
The news shocked the air force general and devastated Miss Reitsch, another true believer. They noticed the Führer's face begin to twitch, his shortened breath coming out in explosive puffs.
"Behind my back," Hitler began to shout, "Göring has established contact with the enemy!…Against my orders he has gone to Berchtesgaden to save himself! From there he has sent me an ultimatum! He…" Hitler stopped to gasp for breath.
This was terrible news. What had happened? After being informed that Hitler had decided to stay on and die in Berlin, Göring had sent the Führer a telegram from Berchtesgaden asking that, in view of his decision, he agree that Göring take over as his deputy in accordance with the Leader's decree of June 29, 1941, which provided for just this contingency. If he received no reply by 10 P.M., the fat Luftwaffe chief added, he would assume that his commander in chief had lost his freedom of action and he, Göring, would assume the "leadership of the Reich."
"A crass ultimatum!" Hitler yelled at Hanna Reitsch. "Now nothing remains! Nothing is spared me! No allegiances kept, no honor lived up to…no betrayals that I have not experienced! And now this, above all else!"
He told them that he had had Göring arrested "as a traitor," had stripped him of all his offices, and had expelled him from the party. "That is why I have called you," he added, to Greim. Whereupon he named the wounded general to succeed Göring as commander in chief of the Luftwaffe.
On the night of April 26, Russian shells began falling on the bunker. Reitsch pleaded with Hitler to leave. "My Führer," she says she told him, "why do you stay? Why do you deprive Germany of your life? The Führer must live so that Germany can live…."[5] He reiterated that he had decided to stay in Berlin.
"My dear girl," he said, "I did not expect it to turn out like this. I believed firmly that Berlin would be saved on the banks of the Oder." When the Russians broke out of their Oder bridgeheads he still believed, he said, that German forces, inspired by his example, would come to the rescue of Berlin. "But, my Hanna. I still have hope. The army of General Wenck is moving up from the south. He must and will drive the Russians back…."
After General Steiner, General Wenck! On April 28, the Führer radioed General Keitel: "I expect the relief of Berlin. What is General Heinrici's army doing? Where is General Wenck? What is happening to the Ninth Army? When will Wenck and the Ninth Army join?"
Reitsch later described Hitler's condition that day. He strode "about the shelter, waving a road map that was fast disintegrating from the sweat of his hands, and planning Wenck's campaign with anyone who happened to be listening."
But there was no Wenck campaign. Like Steiner's "attack" of the week before, it existed only in Hitler's fervid imagination. Wenck's army already had been liquidated, as had the Ninth Army. General Heinrici's army to the north of Berlin was beating a hasty retreat westward so that it might be captured by the Western Allies instead of by the Russians.
The Führer, unnerved by the news of Göring's "treason," suspected more treachery. At 8 P.M. on the evening of April 28, when still no word of the three rescue armies had been received, he ordered Martin Bormann, his mole-like secretary, who in the last couple of years had wormed his way to considerable power, to send a radio message to Admiral Doenitz.
Instead of urging the troops forward to our rescue, the men in authority are silent. Treachery seems to have replaced loyalty.…Chancellery already in ruins.
Later that night Bormann got off another message to Doenitz, this time on his own.
Schoener, Wenck and others must prove their loyalty by coming to the aid of the Führer as soon as possible.
And then toward midnight came another heavy blow. A radio listening post at the Propaganda Ministry across the street picked up a broadcast from the BBC in London quoting a Reuter dispatch from Stockholm that Heinrich Himmler-der treue Heinrich-the savage, sadistic head of the Gestapo and S.S., whom Hitler had trusted above all his henchmen, was negotiating secretly with Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden to surrender the German armies in the west to General Eisenhower.
The news, Reitsch later said, struck "a deathblow to the entire assembly. Men and women alike screamed with rage, fear and desperation, all mixed into one emotional spasm." Hitler's spasm was the worst. "He raged," she said, "like a madman. His color rose to a heated red and his face was virtually unrecognizable." Then the Leader sank into a stupor. No one dared to speak. Finally Hitler recovered enough to curse once more his murderous secret-police chief; Himmler, he said, had committed the worst act of treachery he had ever known. He was worse even than Göring.
Himmler's liaison officer with the Führer, Hermann Fegelein, had not left the bunker on the twentieth with his chief. Like so many of his ilk, this disreputable former groom and jockey, who was quite illiterate, had risen to high position in the Nazi cuckooland; he had married the sister of Hitler's mistress and been named a general in the Waffen-S.S. Sometime on April 26 he quietly slipped out of the bunker. His disappearance was not noticed until the next afternoon when Hitler sent for Fegelein to check on what Himmler was up to. Sniffing further "treason," the Führer sent out an S.S. search party, which found the S.S. general resting in his home in the fashionable Charlottenburg quarter, apparently waiting for the Russians, who were about to overrun the area. He was brought back to the bunker, where Hitler accused him of cowardly desertion, stripped him of his S.S. rank and decorations, and put him under arrest. When the news that Himmler was secretly negotiating surrender with the Swedes broke, the raging leader, unable to get his fingers on the S.S. and Gestapo chief, ordered Fegelein court-martialed for treason. Within an hour he was found guilty, taken up to the courtyard above the bunker, and executed by a firing squad. Eva Braun declined to intervene to save the life of her sister's husband. "Poor Adolf," she whined to Hanna Reitsch, "deserted by everyone, betrayed by all."
It had not been easy to carry out the execution of Eva's brother-in-law. The ground above the bunker was now being blasted by Russian artillery. The members of the firing squad had risked their lives.
Sometime shortly after midnight Adolf Hitler was told that Soviet troops were nearing the Potsdamerplatz a block away and would probably storm the Chancellery on the morning of the thirtieth, some thirty hours hence. This seems to have at last convinced him that it was time to carry out the final decisions of his tumultuous life. He acted with dispatch.
First he dispatched Reitsch and Greim to rally the Luftwaffe for one more massive bombing of the Russians outside the Chancellery, and ordered them to arrest Himmler as a traitor. It was not easy for Reitsch and Greim to get away. Shells from Russian artillery now were landing all over the place. The two flyers were driven through the heavy fire in an armored car to the nearby Brandenburg Gate, where a small Arado 96 trainer plane had been parked behind the stout pillars. With Hanna Reitsch at the controls, the plane taxied a hundred or so yards down the east-west axis. It was night, but the broad avenue was lit up by fires from burning buildings around the Pariserplatz, behind the Gate, and just north toward the Dorotheenstrasse. The little plane had hardly climbed above treetop level before Russian searchlights picked it up and their anti-aircraft guns began to fire away. Reitsch said later the bursting flak tossed the plane about like a feather. Somehow she managed to keep it flying until it climbed into a cloud cover and the sight of the great capital burning below faded away.
Back in the bunker, Adolf Hitler, as a last award to his neglected mistress for sticking with him to the very end, married Eva Braun. It was now after 1 A.M. The shelter was shaking from the thuds of exploding Soviet shells, and there was little time to lose. Goebbels somehow had found a municipal councilor, one Wagner, who was fighting in a unit of the Volksturm nearby, to perform the wedding ceremony. The petty official was relieved to be fetched from almost certain death but surprised and awed to be called upon to perform such a task for so eminent a German.
I eventually saw a copy of the marriage document. Unusual as the circumstances were, Adolf Hitler insisted on sticking to form and observing the law as far as was possible. He did ask that "in view of developments the publication of the banns be dispensed with and all other delays avoided." The couple swore they were "of complete Aryan descent" and had "no hereditary disease to exclude their marriage." The once all-powerful dictator dutifully filled in all the forms except two: the name of his father (born Schicklgruber) and mother, and the date of their marriage. The bride, like most brides at this juncture, seems to have been nervous. She started to sign her name "Eva Braun," but stopped, crossed out the "B," and wrote "Eva Hitler, born Braun." Goebbels and Bormann signed as witnesses.
After what one of Hitler's secretaries described as a "death marriage," a macabre wedding breakfast followed in the Führer's small private apartment. Champagne was served to the guests: Hitler's two secretaries, his vegetarian cook, Fräulein Menzialy, the remaining generals, Krebs and Burgdorf, Bormann, and Dr. and Frau Goebbels. Surprisingly there was much talk, most of it about the good old times when the Nazi party was riding to power. Hitler, in an unexpectedly mellow mood, recalled fondly the wedding of the Goebbelses at which he was best man. As he had done so very often in the small morning hours of happier times, the bridegroom lapsed into a lengthy monologue, going over once more and for the last time the great moments in his fantastic life.
Now it was over, he said, as was the great movement which he had stamped on Germany, National Socialism. It would be a relief for him to die, since he had been betrayed by his oldest friends and supporters. Such talk plunged the wedding party into gloom, and some of the guests, fighting back tears, quietly left. Hitler slipped away too. In an adjoining room he began to dictate to one of his secretaries, Frau Gertrude Jung, his last will and testament.
I found copies of this document too. The testament made it very clear-to me, at least-that this man, who had ruled over Germany for more than twelve years, and over most of Europe for four, had learned nothing from his experience. Not even the shattering defeat, his disastrous final failure, had taught him anything. In the last hours of his life he slipped back in character to the primitive young man he had been in the gutter days in Vienna and the rowdy beer-hall years in Munich, cursing the Jews for all the ills of the world, spinning his half-baked theories about the universe, turning history upside-down and whining that fate once more had cheated Germany of victory and conquest. In this valedictory to the German nation and the world, which was also meant to be a final appeal to history, the doomed dictator dredged up all the empty claptrap of Mein Kampf and added his final falsehoods. It was a fitting epitaph of a power-drunk tyrant whom absolute power had corrupted absolutely and destroyed.
And such falsehoods!
It was not true, he said, that he wanted war in 1939. It was "provoked exclusively" by the Jews, who, he said, were thus solely responsible for not only the millions of deaths suffered on the battlefields and in the bombed cities, but for his own massacre of the Jews. He then turned to the reasons why he had decided to remain in Berlin, and to die there.
I die with a joyful heart in my knowledge of the immeasurable deeds and achievements of our peasants and workers and of a contribution unique in history of our youth which bears my name.
He exhorted Germans not to give up the struggle. He acknowledged that Nazism was dead for the moment but "one day would have a glorious rebirth"-even in the armed forces. Finally he castigated the army, which had done most of the fighting and lost most of the men-millions of them-for having surrendered "towns and districts" in Russia, unmindful that it was his insistence that his troops never give up "a town or a district" that had contributed to the disaster in Russia, where dozens of divisions that could have retreated to fight another day were doomed because they had tried to follow the madman's suicidal orders.
With one more parting shot at the Jews, "the poisoners of all nations," Hitler finished. It was 4 A.M. He had been up all night and was exhausted. He called in Goebbels, Bormann, and Generals Krebs and Burgdorf to witness his signing of the documents and then ordered the first two to carry the testament to the new Doenitz government in the northwest. Bormann was more than willing. For all his devotion to Hitler, he did not want to share his imminent death. What he wanted was to share power, behind the scenes, with Admiral Doenitz, as he had with Hitler. But what if Göring tried to usurp the throne? Bormann got off a radio message to S.S. headquarters at Berchtesgaden, which had just arrested the Luftwaffe chief, to "exterminate" him. "Men, do your duty!" he exhorted. As soon as his Leader had carried out the last act of his life, Bormann would leave for safer parts.
Dr. Goebbels had no such intention. He did not want to live in a Germany from which his revered Führer had departed. For the first time in his life, he said, he would disobey his Master. He sat down and scribbled out his own valedictory to present to future generations. In it he announced that he, with his wife and six young children, would die by the side of their beloved Führer.
During the afternoon of April 29, one last piece of news came in over a makeshift radio from the outside world, and it must have unnerved the stricken dictator further. Benito Mussolini, his fellow Fascist dictator and ally, had met his end in Italy. I never found out how many of the details of the Duce's shabby end were given to Hitler. But one can surmise that whatever he learned only strengthened his resolve not to be made "a spectacle" of, as he had written in his last testament.
He now hastened to make his final preparations. He had his favorite Alsatian dog, Blondi, poisoned and two other dogs shot. He distributed capsules of poison to those of his staff who might want to use them rather than fall into the hands of the Russians. To each he expressed his appreciation for long and faithful service.
Evening now approached, the last of Adolf Hitler's life. He ordered the destruction of his remaining papers and sent out word from his apartment that no one was to go to bed until further orders. This indicated to the others that this was the end. So they waited, not knowing what to do. It was not until around 2:30 A.M. of April 30 that Hitler emerged and appeared in the dining passage. Some twenty persons, mostly women members of his staff, had assembled there. He shook hands with each, mumbling a few words that were inaudible. His moist eyes, Frau Jung remembered, "seemed to be looking far away, beyond the walls of the bunker."
After Hitler retired, there was a bizarre scene in the bunker. The tension, which had become almost unbearable, broke, and several couples started to dance! And to drink! And to talk wildly! The weird party became so noisy that word came from the Führer's quarters requesting quiet. But the dancing went on-through the rest of the night.
Next day at noon, the last daily military "situation" conference of the war was held as usual. Hitler came in to hear the bad news, for the very last time. The Russians had now reached the eastern end of the Tiergarten and broken into Potsdamerplatz. They had surrounded the Chancellery. Hitler realized he had to act-quickly. Still, he insisted on lunch first. Apparently his bride had no appetite, and Hitler ate his last meal with his two women secretaries and his cook.
While they were finishing lunch, Erich Kempka, Hitler's chauffeur, who was in charge of the Chancellery garage, was busy trying to round up gasoline for the funeral pyre. He himself did not yet know its purpose; he had simply received orders to find two hundred liters-no easy task in the besieged bunker-and deliver it in jerricans to the doorway leading out on the garden above. After some difficulty, Kempka managed to scrape up one hundred eighty liters, and with the help of three aides, carry it to the emergency exit.
Meanwhile Hitler had fetched his bride for a final farewell with those who had long been in his inner circle: Dr. Goebbels, Generals Kreb and Burgdorf, the secretaries, and Fräulein Menzialy, the cook. Frau Goebbels did not appear. Like Eva Braun, this much more formidable and attractive woman had found it easy enough to make the decision to die with her husband. But unlike the Hitlers, the Goebbelses had six young children.
"My dear Hanna," Magda Goebbels had said to Hanna Reitsch two or three evenings before, "when the end comes you must help me if I become weak about the children.…They belong to the Third Reich and to the Führer, and if these two cease to exist there can be no further place for them. My greatest fear is that at the last moment I will be too weak."
Alone in her little room at this last moment she was striving to overcome her greatest fear.
Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler had no such problem. They had only their own lives to take. They said their last farewells and retired to their quarters. Outside in the passageway Goebbels, Bormann, and the others waited. A revolver shot was heard. They waited for a second shot, but it did not come. They opened the door. The body of Adolf Hitler was sprawled on the sofa dripping blood. He had shot himself in the right temple. At his side lay Eva Braun. A second revolver lay on the floor but it had not been used. The bride had swallowed poison.
The men checked their watches. It was 3:30 P.M. on Monday, April 30, 1945, ten days after Adolf Hitler's fifty-sixth birthday, and twelve years and three months to a day since he had become chancellor and had begun to make a shaky Germany into the conquering Third Reich. It would survive him by just one week.
The Viking burial and cremation took place to the accompaniment of exploding Russian shells in the garden above the bunker. During a lull in the bombardment the two bodies were placed in a shallow shell hole and ignited with gasoline, as the mourners, led by Goebbels and Bormann, stood at attention and raised their right arms in the Nazi salute. But not for long. Red Army shells again began falling and as the flames commenced to consume the bodies of the great dictator and his bride, the little band of henchmen withdrew down the steps to the safety of the bunker.
It was now time for Goebbels to follow suit. He waited until the next day, May 1, when it became evident that the Russians were about to burst into the last stronghold of the Third Reich. Toward evening he called in a physician to give his six children lethal injections. To the last moment they had been romping about the complex of underground corridors and rooms, playing hide and seek, oblivious to this final act of history being played out by their parents and the man they knew only, and affectionately, as "Uncle Adolf." I found no eyewitnesses to their end. Helga, the oldest, was twelve; Hilda, eleven; Helmut, nine; Holde, seven; Hedda, five; Heide, three.
Then Goebbels summoned his adjutant and instructed him to fetch some gasoline. "This is the worst treachery of all," he told him. "The generals have betrayed the Führer. Everything is lost! I shall die with my wife and family." He did not mention that he had just had his children dispatched. At about 9:30 P.M. on May Day, just as it was getting dark outside, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, arm in arm, mounted the steps leading to the emergency exit, ducked out to the gardens amid exploding shells and, standing side by side, braced themselves for the adjutant-S.S. Hauptsturm Führer Günther Schwaegermann-to carry out their orders: a shot each in the back of the head.
***
Such was the sorry end of Hitler and Goebbels, victims of their lust for power and conquest and of their reversion to barbarism. The other two Nazi bigwigs who had been accomplices in their crimes, Göring and Himmler, did not survive them very long. Both were captured by the Allies. Both cheated justice by swallowing poison.
Himmler first. Dismissed on May 6 by Admiral Doenitz from his rump government, which had been set up at Flensburg on the Danish border, the S.S. and Gestapo chief, who had sent so many millions to their deaths, wandered about the frontier for days seeking some way out that would allow him to live. On May 21, having shaved off his mustache, tied a black patch over his left eye, and donned an army private's uniform, Himmler set off with eleven S.S. officers to try to pass through the British and American lines to his native Bavaria. The party was stopped the first day at a British control point between Hamburg and Bremerhaven. After a brief interrogation, Himmler admitted his identity and was taken away to Second Army headquarters at Lüneburg. There he was stripped and searched and made to change into a British army uniform to avert any possibility that he might be concealing poison in his clothes. But this was not precaution enough. Himmler kept a vial of potassium cyanide concealed in a cavity in his gums. When on May 23 a British army doctor started to examine the prisoner's mouth, Himmler bit on his vial and was dead in twelve minutes.
This cold-blooded killer had never looked his part. I saw him from time to time and he first struck me, with his pince-nez spectacles, as looking like a harmless schoolmaster. But behind the façade was a ruthless man, the most evil of all the Nazi thugs, responsible more than any other German for the massacre of millions of Jews in the ovens of the extermination camps, and also for the deaths of two million Russian prisoners of war.
Göring, perhaps a little more human but scarcely less ruthless, shared responsibility for letting Russian POWs die of exposure and starvation in their shelterless camps; he met his end somewhat later, on October 15, 1946, around midnight. Two hours before his turn would have come to be hanged at the Nuremberg jail along with ten other Nazi leaders found guilty by the four-power Allied tribunal of various crimes against humanity, Hermann Göring, once so fat and bemedaled and all-powerful, swallowed a vial of poison that had been smuggled into his cell.
For weeks I had sat in the courtroom in Nuremberg, covering the trial. For me it was the last chapter of a story that had begun eleven years before in this very city when as my first assignment in Hitler's Germany I had been sent there at the beginning of September 1934, to cover the annual Nazi party rally. It was in this old medieval town of narrow winding streets that once saw Hans Sachs and the Meistersinger that I had got my first glimpse of Adolf Hitler and his henchmen (Göring, Goebbels, Himmler, and Hess, principally) and launched myself into covering the rise of the Third Reich for the next six years. The men had been so arrogant then and they had become even more so in the ensuing years of triumph-what a contrast to the way they looked in the Nuremberg dock, shabby and down at heel, and beaten.
It was here in Nuremberg, I remembered now as the trial ground on, that at the end of the frenetic party rally in early September 1934, I had suddenly begun to realize that Adolf Hitler, loathsome as he was, had a hold on the German people that no other German had ever had, and that they were prepared-no, willing and happy-to follow him loyally and obediently like sheep but also with all their power and ability on a great adventure that bade no good for the civilized world nor even, in the long run, for themselves or for Germany.
CHAPTER 3
It was at the Nuremberg trial that I at last learned for sure about the "Final Solution," the diabolical plan of Hitler, carried out so ruthlessly by Heydrich and Himmler, to get rid of all the Jews of Europe by massacring them. Our own State Department and the British Foreign Office had done their best to keep the news of the Nazi slaughter of the Jews secret until the Allies had won the war, but a good deal of the truth had gradually filtered out to the West. Only, it had not been believed. It had been too horrendous for ordinary mortals to grasp. I myself at first had been skeptical, despite all my years in Nazi Germany. The extermination camps in Poland, where the Jews were gassed, had not yet been set up when I left Berlin in December 1940. Construction of them had begun only the following year.
But looking back, I have to admit a terrible failure on my part. I should have remembered what Hitler said in his speech to the Reichstag on January 30, 1939, the sixth anniversary of his taking over the German government, and the beginning of the year in which he would launch the Second World War: "If the international Jewish financiers…should again succeed in plunging the nations into a world war the result will be…the annihilation of the Jewish race throughout Europe."
By that time, after five years in Nazi Germany, I knew well enough that there was little hope for the Jews. But for some reason this publicly expressed threat by the dictator did not register very strongly with me, perhaps because he had again pulled the old poppycock about the "international Jewish financiers" starting a world war, when everyone knew that if war came it would be Hitler who started it. For all the persecution of the German Jews up to 1939, at least there had not yet been any mass killings. Probably even then I could not quite grasp that such a thing could occur in this nation, ruled though it was by ruthless, fanatical anti-Semites. After all, Germany was a Christian country with a very deep and rich European culture. Hitler repeated the threat five times in subsequent public utterances that year, and there is no excuse for my not having taken notice.
Back home after I left Berlin at the end of 1940, I should have done much more than I did to get the facts of this terrible genocide and then report it. I should not have been so easily put off by the State Department and the Foreign Office. I should have pressed the White House, where I had good contacts in Harry Hopkins and Bob Sherwood, and in Felix Frankfurter at the Supreme Court, who was close to the president. But even Justice Frankfurter, himself a Jew who as a youth had emigrated from Austria and who was very much concerned with the fate of Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe, was put off by President Roosevelt, who kept telling him that according to his information the Jews were being transported "to the East" to provide cheap labor for the Nazis and not to be destroyed.
So the revelations at Nuremberg of the "Final Solution" burst upon me like a thunderbolt and left me numb for several days-my mind, my imagination, unable to cope with their enormity.
There was that almost incredible confession of a Nazi thug by the name of Rudolf Hoess, commander of the Nazi extermination camp at Auschwitz. Hoess, a convicted murderer at twenty-three who had served five years of a life sentence before being amnestied in 1928 by the easygoing Weimar Republic, had joined the S.S. two years later, and after the Nazis came to power in 1933 had served as a guard and later as an official in the concentration camps. Thus he spent almost his entire adult life first as a prisoner and then as a jailer. At Nuremberg he seemed most anxious to tell his story, both in affidavits for the prosecution and then on the stand. He seemed proud of his achievements as one of the greatest killers of all time.
For one thing, he boasted, it was he who had introduced a much better means of mass extermination at Auschwitz than was offered at other Nazi death camps in Poland: Belzec, Treblinka, and Wolzek.
I visited Treblinka to find out how they carried out their exterminations. The camp commandant there told me he had liquidated 80,000 in the course of half a year….
He used monoxide gas and I did not think that his methods were very efficient. So when I set up the extermination building at Auschwitz I used Zyklon B, which was a crystallized prussic acid, which we dropped into the death chamber from a small opening. It took from three to fifteen minutes to kill the people in the death chamber, depending upon climatic conditions.
Herr Hoess said he knew when the people were dead "because their screaming stopped." After the bodies were removed, he said, his "special commandos took off the rings and extracted the gold from the teeth of the corpses." Always Herr Hoess kept making "improvements" in the art of mass killing.
Another improvement we made over Treblinka was that we built our gas chambers to accommodate 2,000 people at one time, whereas at Treblinka their ten gas chambers only accommodated 200 persons each….
Still another improvement we made over Treblinka was that at Treblinka the victims almost always knew that they were to be exterminated, while at Auschwitz we endeavored to fool the victims into thinking that they were to go through a delousing process. Of course, frequently they realized our true intentions and we sometimes had riots and difficulties. Very frequently women would hide their children under their clothes but of course when we found them we would send the children to be exterminated.[6]
Two of Germany's greatest industrial firms, Krupp and I. G. Farben, had set up plants at Auschwitz to take advantage of cheap Jewish labor. How were the selections made, Hoess was asked, of those picked to work and those to die?
We had two doctors at Auschwitz to examine the incoming transports of prisoners. They would be marched past one of the doctors, who would make spot decisions as they walked by. Those who looked fit to work were sent into the camp. The others were sent immediately to the extermination plants. Children of tender years were invariably exterminated since by reason of their youth they were unable to work.
But even those "fit" Jews who were sent to work as slaves in the very profitable enterprises of Krupp and I. G. Farben did not live very long. After they had been worked to exhaustion, they were returned to Herr Hoess and his colleagues for the "Final Solution."
Not all the Jews were killed in the gas chambers. In the beginning the Nazi Germans used another method of extermination. It came to light in Nuremberg.
One day, some weeks before the trial began, American prosecutors were questioning a German named Otto Ohlendorf on his wartime activities. The prisoner was typical of many who had risen to eminence in Himmler's S.S. A university graduate, with a doctorate in jurisprudence, an intellectual, a brilliant economist, he had served most of the war as a foreign trade expert in the Ministry of Economics in Berlin. But for one year he had taken on an assignment away from the capital.
What kind of an assignment? he was asked.
"I was chief of Einsatzgruppe D," he said.
By this time the lawyers on the U.S. prosecution staff had become somewhat expert on the subject.
"During the year that you were chief of Einsatzgruppe D," Lieutenant-Commander Whitney R. Harris, a young lawyer on the American staff, asked, "how many men, women, and children did your group kill?"
Ohlendorf, Harris later reported, shrugged his shoulders and with only the slightest hesitation answered:
"Ninety thousand."
The Einsatz groups had first been organized by Himmler and Heydrich to follow the German armies into Poland at the outset of the war in the fall of 1939 and there round up the Jews and place them in ghettos. But with the beginning of the Russian campaign nearly two years later, their function was changed. They were ordered to follow the combat troops and carry out the final solution.
There were four such Einsatzgruppen, A through D. The last one, which Ohlendorf commanded between June 1941 and June 1942, was assigned to the southern sector in the Ukraine and attached to the Eleventh Army. Thus the German army knew what these Einsatz thugs were up to. On the stand at Nuremberg Ohlendorf explained, adding that among the Jews, women and children were not to be spared.
"For what reason were the children massacred?" the Russian judge, General I. T. Nikitchenko, interrupted to ask.
OHLENDORF: The order was that the Jewish population should be totally exterminated.
THE JUDGE: Including the children?
OHLENDORF: Yes.
THE JUDGE: Were all the Jewish children murdered?
OHLENDORF: Yes.
***
In an affidavit and on the stand, Ohlendorf described how the Einsatzgruppen killed. They would round up the Jews in a town, seize their valuables even to their "outer clothing," and then transport them in army trucks to the place of execution, usually an antitank ditch, which often the victims were made to dig themselves. The German guards would then push them into the ditch. Then, said Ohlendorf, "they were shot, kneeling, or standing, by firing squads in a military manner."
And the ditch was bulldozed over the corpses.
In the spring of 1942, Ohlendorf revealed, the method of execution for women and children was changed, on the orders of Himmler. Instead of shooting them, the Nazi exterminators dispatched them in gas vans especially constructed for the purpose by two Berlin firms. When the motor was started, the fumes from the gas exhaust were piped into the hermetically sealed van. Death came after "ten to fifteen minutes," Ohlendorf said.
But this method was entirely too slow for the massacres the Nazis now planned-quite inadequate, for example, for the slaughter at Kiev, the capital of the Ukraine, shortly after its capture by the German army. There, according to an official Einsatz report, 33,771 persons, mostly Jews, were executed by shooting in just two days, September 29 and 30, 1941.
The total number of Jews and Soviet commissars done away with by the Einsatzgruppen could not be completely computed at Nuremberg. Ohlendorf's Group D did not do as well as some other groups. Group A in the north reported on January 1, 1942, that it had executed 229,052 Jews in the Baltic area and in White Russia. By November, Himmler reported to Hitler that 363,211 Jews had been killed in Russia from August through October, 1942.
Adolf Eichmann, by that time the leading S.S. manager of the Holocaust, later testified that two million persons, almost all Jews, were liquidated by the Einsatzgruppen in the East. But this probably was an exaggeration-the Nazi killers often gave swollen figures to impress the bloodthirsty Hitler and Himmler. According to Himmler's own statistician, a Dr. Richard Korherr, a total of 633,300 Jews in Russia were "resettled"-that is, executed-up to March 23, 1943. Probably by mid-1943, when the murderous duties of the Einsatzgruppen were taken over by the extermination camps, which could carry them out more efficiently on a larger scale, the number of their victims had passed one million. One million innocent, defenseless human beings shot to death in cold blood by the Germans! Five million more Jews would be slaughtered in the gas chambers of the death camps.
Hoess and Ohlendorf did not escape justice. The latter was found guilty by a U.S. military tribunal at Nuremberg along with twenty-one other Einsatz group leaders, fourteen of whom were sentenced to death. Only four, Ohlendorf and three other group commanders, were hanged-at Landsberg prison on June 8, 1951. (This was the prison where Adolf Hitler had served two years for having led the Munich Beer Hall Putsch in 1923.) Hoess, the terror of Auschwitz, was turned over to the Poles, who tried him and sentenced him to death. In the spring of 1947 he was hanged at Auschwitz, the scene of his crimes.
***
While I was in Nuremberg covering the trial, my mother died in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. I was down with the flu, the worst case I had ever had. Early on the morning of Tuesday, November 27, in one of the crowded bedrooms of an old palace where the correspondents were put up by the army, Howard Smith leaned over from his cot to wake me up. "I'm sorry," he said, "but I have some bad news for you. Your mother died yesterday. New York told me over the feedback last night." He had done the midnight broadcast to New York from the courthouse downtown. I wondered how the end had come. Quickly and without pain, I hoped. She had not been recently ill, so far as I knew. My worries had been about my wife, Tess, in New York, who had pneumonia.
If Mother had died on the Monday, funeral services would be on Wednesday or Thursday. With luck, if I could wrangle transportation and the doctor's okay, I might make it back to Iowa in time for them. I dragged myself out of bed and dressed and went down to see the army physician.
"You're in no shape to make the long flight home," he said, "even if you can get transportation, which I hope you can't. I know how you feel, and I'm sorry. But I urge you not to go." He took my temperature. It was still 102°. "Go back to bed," he said.
I hooked a ride to town to the army transport bureau. A young lieutenant said he would do what he could, but there was little chance. He might get me on a plane to London or Paris the next day or the day after. But he could not guarantee a connecting flight to New York before the weekend, at the earliest. Beaten, I returned to the press camp and went back to bed. A cable from Tess had come in. Mother's end was swift and painless, she said.
MOTHER FELT WELL UNTIL LAST MINUTE, FAINTED SUDDENLY IN THE MIDDLE OF A CHAT WITH A NEIGHBOUR, NO PAIN, DID NOT WAKEN AGAIN, DIED TWENTY MINUTES LATER.
I kept after the transport office the next two days but there were no planes. On Thursday I had a cable from Tess dispatched the evening before-the time difference between Nuremberg and New York was six hours-saying the funeral had been set for Friday in Cedar Rapids. She was too ill to go. My brother and sister had left by train from the east to help arrange it.
I wondered if I had been able to make it whether I would have been able to express what I felt very strongly about my mother at the funeral service, which would be attended by her friends, a number of whom I had known while growing up in Cedar Rapids, though of course I had not seen them for twenty years-I had been twenty-one when I left the place. Probably not. It was not customary, even at a Presbyterian service in those days, for a relative, even a son, to deliver a eulogy. But perhaps I could get in a word by long-distance cable. I scrawled a few lines and got them off to my brother in Cedar Rapids.
PLEASE CONVEY TO MY FRIENDS THERE ALSO THE PASTOR MY DESPAIR AT NOT BEING ABLE TO BE PRESENT LAST RITES FOR MOTHER TOMORROW. I WOULD HAVE LIKED TO SAY A FEW WORDS RECALLING HER INTEGRITY HER COURAGE HER WISDOM HER SELF-SACRIFICE HER TOO GREAT MODESTY AND WONDERFUL INSPIRATION SHE WAS TO US.
Later, I was told that the pastor of the First Presbyterian Church opened the service by reading my cable. It was little enough tribute to a wonderful woman, who had struggled through a difficult life bravely and with great fortitude. She had lost her husband in Chicago in 1913, when both were forty-two, and he already launched on a brilliant career at the bar. She had raised three children alone on the most slender of means and seen them through college. She had endured the loneliness of widowhood for thirty-two years after a marriage of less than half that length, never complaining of her fate. She accepted it with grace and wisdom.
***
On Sunday, December 9, I did my last broadcast from Nuremberg. A couple of days before, it had turned bitter cold, and the medieval city, or what was left of it, was blanketed in snow. Paul White, the CBS news director, had ordered me home. I felt a little guilty. Probably I could make it home for Christmas. Most of my colleagues and hundreds of Americans on Justice Jackson's prosecution staff would have to spend the holiday in the frigid, bleak ruins of this old town. Still, none of them had been in this country anywhere near as long as I had. Fascinating as the trial was, I was glad to get out. My diary:
Nuremberg, Sunday, December 9 (after midnight). Exhausted from writing the broadcast, giving it twice (recording and "live") and then finishing the last take of the long cable to the Digest, which went off at midnight. Must pack now and be up at six to catch the courier plane to Paris….
A strange feeling of relief to be leaving this tortuous, tragic land again-perhaps for the last time. Its fate, its spirit, its character, its culture, its people and their barbarian excesses (and now their excessive self-pity) and finally their ghastly war have absorbed my own little life for nearly fifteen years. I seek a release….
It is almost five years to a day since my last going away from Germany. It seemed then that the evil in the German had not only triumphed over himself but was about to triumph over the world….
What seemed like certain doom when last I left did not come off. Those who sought to destroy the rest of the world are themselves destroyed….
They would eventually recover and rebuild, of course. Had they learned anything from the thirteen years of the Third Reich, which most of them had enthusiastically supported? I found little evidence of it. They had never really minded the barbarism of the Nazi regime. They seemed uninterested in the horrors Hitler had perpetrated in the occupied lands and in slaughtering five or six million Jews in the gas chambers. Or they didn't believe such things had happened: it was all enemy propaganda. The Allies had hoped the revelations of the Nuremberg trial would arouse the Germans to a realization of what had happened. But so far as I could see, it had not. More than once I had gone out into the streets and asked ordinary Germans what they thought of the trial.
"Propaganda!" they said. "You'll hang our leaders. So why go on with this farce of a so-called trial? It's propaganda!"
The Germans were not the only ones who had learned little from the war and the Nazi crimes against humanity. There were some Americans, especially in the army. For instance: at Dachau, the notorious concentration camp near Munich, an American military court was trying a certain Dr. Schilling, actually well known to Germans as a scientist, who was accused of having murdered three hundred prisoners at Dachau by using them as guinea pigs for experiments in the study of malaria. The good doctor freely admitted what he had done but justified it on the grounds it had advanced the study of the disease. Unbelievably, he was backed by an American army officer, who was quoted as saying that the U.S. surgeon general's office had found the results of the Dachau "research" worthwhile because they had contributed to the cure for malaria. I doubted that the surgeon general had made any such finding. Another U.S. Army officer, I noted, was going around Munich saying he didn't believe the atrocity stories about Dachau anyway.
CHAPTER 4
London, where I was to pick up an army plane for home as soon as space was available, was damp and chilly and gray as usual at this time of year. But the English were looking ahead to their first peacetime Christmas in six years and the miserable weather, which they were used to anyway, did not bother them. Nor did much else, though they knew that after all the sacrifices of the long war, grim years lay ahead in which they would have to rebuild the bombed-out cities and somehow put together a new economy, the old one now in shambles because of the cost of war and the loss of most of the Empire, which formerly had been so profitable.
It would be their first Christmas, I reflected, since 1938 that the lights would be on in the city streets and merrymakers could go caroling as they had before and one could look through the windows, so heavily curtained during the wartime blackout, and see the lights of Christmas trees. I began to think that I would be spending this Christmas in London, but the U.S. Army finally came through with a place on a plane that would get me home in time.
On the way to the airport, a headline in the Daily Telegraph caught my eye. John Amery, son of an eminent Tory politician and former cabinet member, had been hanged the day before for treason. He had broadcast for Hitler. The British were certainly being tough on their radio traitors. William Joyce, whom the English had dubbed Lord Haw-Haw and listened to in great numbers during the Phony War, had just been condemned to death for his broadcasts from Berlin against his own people. I wondered if the United States would be as strict with its radio traitors when they came to trial. Eight of them had been indicted for treason two years before, but none had yet been tried. I had known a number of these miserable men and women, American and English, in Berlin.
John Amery, whose father had been home minister during much of the time I had worked in London, had arrived in Berlin after I left, but I had learned about him later. He seems to have been somewhat of a spoiled child. Declaring himself bankrupt at twenty-four, he had left England, worked for Franco in the Spanish Civil War, frequented French Fascist circles during the first two years of the world war, and gone on from France to Berlin in 1942 to broadcast for the Germans. He also became involved in trying to recruit British POWs for an anti-Bolshevik Free Corps to fight with the Germans in Russia. At his trial, to the surprise of the court and his own defense lawyers, he pleaded guilty to all counts. This was committing suicide, for under English law a plea of guilty in a treason case brought a death sentence automatically. A judge could not substitute a sentence of imprisonment, and there was no appeal from the sentence. So John Amery, at thirty-three, had gone to the gallows that chilly, gray December day.
William Joyce would quickly follow him. He had been tried for treason at Old Bailey in September, found guilty, and sentenced to death. He had appealed and his case was reviewed in November by the Court of Appeal, which confirmed the verdict and the sentence. In a desperate move to cheat the gallows, Joyce appealed to the House of Lords, where five judges heard his case for a week in December. His main defense was that he was an American citizen, having been born in Brooklyn in 1906 of Irish parents, and therefore could not be tried for treason against the British king. But the prosecution showed that he had always traveled with a British passport, had proclaimed that he was British, and once, in order to run as a candidate in municipal elections, had sworn that he was a British citizen. Apparently, according to friends who had covered the trials, Joyce believed to the last that his plea of American citizenship would enable him to escape the gallows. But in all three hearings the courts held that Joyce, while admittedly "an American subject, by reason of his birth in the United States, had put himself under the protection of the Crown by obtaining and using a British passport, and therefore owed allegiance to the Crown at the time he was broadcasting from Germany."
I got to know him in Berlin at what must have been the high point of his strange life. This was during the "Phony War," that strange interlude between September 3, 1939, when World War II broke out upon Hitler's attacking Poland, and the summer of 1940, when the Germans overran the West. Scarcely a shot was fired on the western front between the belligerents. Not a bomb was dropped. Only leaflets. The British were bored. William Joyce's broadcasts to them from Berlin helped fill the void. On the air he affected the voice, mannerisms, and accent of a rather decadent English lord. The caricature amused the British listeners. According to Ed Murrow, about half of those who turned their radios on during the evening switched to Haw-Haw. This represented an immense following. But he did not hold it very long. When the war became serious and the real fighting began, first in Norway and then in Holland, Belgium, and France in the spring and summer of 1940, and London and much of Britain began to be heavily bombed, Joyce lost his audience. His quips no longer amused a people suddenly concerned with fighting for their survival.
I used to see Haw-Haw at the shortwave center of the German Broadcasting House, where he went by the name of "Froelich," the equivalent in German of his English name, for it means "joyful." Later, when the British began to bomb Berlin, we found that we shared a distaste at being herded by bullying S.S. guards into the air-raid shelter when the alert sounded. We would sneak out of the cellar and usually end up in his office, where we would douse the lights, pull aside the heavy curtains on the windows, and watch the fireworks. When they were over and while we were waiting to go on the air, we had much good talk. I had a sneaking liking for the man; he was amusing and not unintelligent. But he was the victim of a twisted mind, which instilled in him a violent hatred of the Jews and the British upper classes and a childish adulation of Adolf Hitler and National Socialism.
He had not turned traitor for money-or for love.[7] He received, I believe, the customary thousand marks a month (roughly four hundred dollars) and his Nazi employers threw in a free apartment. As for love, he had brought with him from England his wife, with whom he seemed very much in love.
Why then was he committing treason? He denied that he was, saying that he had renounced his British citizenship and become a German citizen. But still-why, I would ask him, was he spouting Nazi propaganda to his own people?
"I believe I'm broadcasting the truth," he would say. Probably he actually thought so. He had become a fanatical true-believer. He felt that Hitler, he said, was trying to save the world from "the forces of darkness." He seemed hurt when I said I couldn't understand how a man of his intelligence could believe in such nonsense.
The main reason he was broadcasting to England for Hitler, besides ideology, I concluded, was that it offered him for the first time in his life recognition as someone of some importance. He was listened to by a large number of his fellow countrymen. This had never happened to him at home.
In Britain he had never made it, try as he had. After grade and high school in Ireland, he had studied at the University of London and in 1923, at the age of seventeen, he joined the British Fascists and got his first taste of street brawling, scars of which were still visible on his face when I saw him years later in Berlin. This first British Fascist organization did not thrive, and ten years later, in 1933, the year Hitler took power in Germany, Joyce joined Sir Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists and soon became its director of propaganda and one of its leading speakers, pamphleteers, and street fighters. He broke with Mosley four years later and, with John Beckett, a former Labour M.P. (Mosley had also been a Labour M.P.), formed a Nazi party of his own, the National Socialist League. But it did not thrive, nor did he.
"To me it was clear on the morning of August 25, 1939," he once said to me, quoting, as I later saw, from his book Twilight Over England, published in Berlin in 1940, "that the greatest struggle in history was now doomed to take place. England was going to war. I felt that if, for perfect reasons of conscience, I could not fight for her, I must give her up forever."
He fled, crossing over the Channel and heading for Berlin to take part in what he called the "sacred struggle to free the world." He was already blinded by his adulation of Adolf Hitler. I found him tiresome on the subject. The Führer, he held, was the greatest leader the century had produced. His "heroism" was "superhuman." I remember him pointing out, when he gave me a copy of his book, the last sentence, which constituted, he said, his supreme belief: that there were two guarantees of the future of mankind, "the greatness of Adolf Hitler and the Greater Glory of Almighty God."
Through his trial and the appeals Joyce behaved, English reporters who covered the case told me, with courage and even humor. He would go with the same courage, I was told later, to the gallows at grimy Wandsworth Prison on the bitter cold morning of January 3, 1946. He made no apologies for what he had done.[8]
***
Until Germany declared war on the United States on December 10, 1941, and brought us into the conflict, there was nothing treasonous about Americans broadcasting for Hitler on shortwave to the United States from Berlin. One could question their taste, but not their loyalty to their native land. There were three of them who began broadcasting Nazi propaganda early in the war, and I occasionally ran into them and learned a little of why they were doing it.
The most effective of the three, at least on the air, was Fred Kaltenbach, of Dubuque, Iowa. He was a fanatical convert to Nazism. He really believed in it. Born of German immigrant parents, he remained very German in outlook and, like so many Germans in the Fatherland, he was early attracted to Hitler's movement. He had a good education in America, studying first at Grinnell, one of the best of the small liberal arts colleges in the Midwest, and then at Iowa State Teachers College in Waterloo, where he earned a B. A. in 1920 (after serving a short time as a second lieutenant in the Coast Artillery during the First World War). After receiving an M.A. in history at the University of Chicago, he returned to Dubuque to teach in the high school. He followed avidly Hitler's rise to power in Germany. In 1933, the year his idol became the German chancellor, Kaltenbach organized a group of high-school boys into a hiking club that he called the "Militant Order of the Spartan Knights." He modeled it after the Hitler Youth, even to brown shirt uniforms. The school authorities in Dubuque showed better sense than their counterparts in Germany. They ordered Kaltenbach to disband his "knights." Rebuffed if not disheartened, he departed Dubuque and indeed his country, and set out for his beloved Nazi Germany. There he enrolled at the University of Berlin and eventually earned a Ph. D. When the war started he offered his services to Dr. Goebbels and began to broadcast on the German shortwave radio service to America.
It was not at first easy for him or for his new masters. It sounds almost unbelievable, but Nazi officials in the Propaganda Ministry and at the Broadcasting House found the American "too Nazi." He quarreled with them over the purity of their National Socialism.
That quarrel was still going on when Kaltenbach showed up at Compiègne, where on June 21 and 22, 1940, Hitler dictated his armistice terms to the French after their terrible defeat. The German radio people had barred him from covering the event and refused him transportation from Paris. But he hooked a ride with some army officers and sneaked into the little clearing in the woods at Rethondes outside of Compiègne. All during those two days he was continually being ejected from the grounds by M.P.s and continually slipping back. I remember Kaltenbach standing by my side that first day when Hitler arrived. The Führer was surrounded by his military officers; opposite him sat the dejected members of the French delegation. Kaltenbach, as if in a trance, gazed longingly at his Führer. He would have died for Adolf Hitler.
And actually he did. He elected to stay on in Germany after Hitler declared war on America. His broadcasts to America now became virulent. He spouted out his glorification of Hitler and Nazism and his hatred of the American democracy. He urged Americans to turn against President Roosevelt and to desist from the war effort.
At the war's end, Kaltenbach, who had remained in Berlin, was captured by the Russians, who refused to turn him over to the Americans. Perhaps they thought his fellow countrymen would not be as tough on him as he deserved. On this last assignment to Berlin I made inquiries as to what had happened to him. The Americans didn't know. The Russians wouldn't say. I presumed he was dead.[9]
Edward Leopold Delaney, who was known at the Propaganda Ministry in Berlin as E. D. Ward, broadcast under the latter name for Goebbels. At home he had been a struggling actor, touring the country in such plays as Get-Rich-Quick Wallingford. He was also an author of two books, The Lady by Degrees and The Charm Girl, the latter advertised as the "scream-line correspondence of a radio charmer and her girl friend." According to a note I made of him in my Berlin diary in 1940, "he has a diseased hatred for the Jews, but otherwise is a mild fellow and broadcasts the cruder type of Nazi propaganda…." Like Kaltenbach, he chose to remain in Berlin after the United States entered the war, and in 1943 he was indicted for treason along with seven other Americans who had broadcast to the United States.[10]
The third American broadcaster indicted for broadcasting to the United States from Berlin after 1941 was a woman, a Miss Constance Drexel of Philadelphia, where Drexel is a famous name. She had once written, she told me, for the Public Ledger there. The Nazis hired her, I think, because she was the only woman in town who would sell her American accent to them. I suspected she did it, in part, because she needed the money. At least, in pestering me for a job on CBS, she said she needed some. The Nazi Germans at the Broadcasting House complained that she was a lousy broadcaster, with no style or personality to project. But she stayed on after America got into the war. In time, the Justice Department would drop its indictment of her and she would return, so the department later informed me, to the United States.
There was a fourth American broadcasting for the Nazis when I was still in Berlin before we got into the war, but unlike the others he was a combat radio correspondent with the German army whose front-line battle recordings were played to America on the shortwave. This was Charles Flicksteger, who wrote and broadcast under a shortening of his name to "Flick." I knew him rather well. In fact, I replaced him when I went to Berlin in 1934 for the Universal News Service.
Flick's chief interest was music. Married to a retired Munich opera singer, he composed operas, one or two of which, I believe, were produced in provincial German opera houses. He used to tell me that Germany was the only country in the world where a struggling composer had a chance to have his opera performed-the country had more than a dozen good opera companies, subsidized by the government. Flick would contrast this with America, which, outside of New York and Chicago, he said, had no opera companies, and even those rarely played a new work by an American composer.
Flick, who had many friends in the Nazi party, including Göring, got into some kind of trouble with them during the June 1934 blood purge of the S.A. leaders and found it necessary to get himself transferred from Berlin to Vienna. There the Austrians promptly arrested him as a Nazi agent and expelled him. He returned to America to see if he could make a go of it at home as a journalist and a composer. Apparently he couldn't, and sometime before the war he returned to Berlin, soured on his native land. "I just couldn't make it over there," he complained to me.
When I saw Flick next-and for the last time-he had made his decision. It was a curious meeting. It was June 1940, and the German army, which I had followed across Holland, Belgium, and France as an American correspondent, had just marched into Paris. I came back to the hotel one evening and slipped into a seat at a large table in the dining room of the Hotel Scribe. The table was full of happy German army officers, most of them in their cups. One of them with the insignia of a first lieutenant looked familiar. He was grinning at me.
"Guess you didn't expect to see me, Bill, in this," he said, pointing to his gray German army uniform. He had given up his American citizenship, he added, and become a German. He seemed pleased with himself. After all, the German army had just conquered France in six weeks. And he was now a part of it.
Toward the end of the war, I heard, Flick had somehow got out to China, where he was manager of a German-owned radio station, XGRS, which poured out anti-American propaganda from Japanese-occupied Shanghai. He was arrested by the Americans in Shanghai at the war's end, I believe, but later released.
None of these Americans, as I have said, who were broadcasting to America in the service of Nazi propaganda were involved in treason during the time I knew them. America was not yet in the war. Flick apparently escaped indictment later, when we did get into the war, because he had become a German citizen-a defense similar to the one that did not save Joyce's life. But Kaltenbach, Delaney, and Miss Drexel apparently took no such step before Germany and the United States became formally at war, and they were indicted in 1943 for treason. In the meantime, other Americans, on the whole more effective, had joined them in Berlin.
***
I knew two of them rather well. One was Robert Best, who had been the United Press correspondent in Vienna during the years I had the Chicago Tribune and CBS bureaus there. The other was Donald Day, for twenty years the Chicago Tribune's correspondent in Riga, from which he poured out richly imaginative stories about the troubles of the nearby Soviet Union, including lurid tales of uprisings that were about, he reported, to overthrow the godless Bolshevik regime. These tales made him a great favorite of our boss, the imperious, anti-Red Colonel McCormick, proprietor, editor, and publisher of what he insisted was "The World's Greatest Newspaper." Day was a big, boisterous, boyish fellow, rather liked by most of his American colleagues despite his deplorable reporting and his making his hatred of the Bolsheviks in Moscow into a sacred crusade. It was this fierce zeal that propelled him late in the war into the service of Hitler against his native land.
The end that Bob Best chose surprised me and, I believe, the rest of his American colleagues who knew him and liked him in Vienna. Born in Sumter, South Carolina, in 1896, he had graduated from Wofford College in Spartanburg in 1916, served as a lieutenant in the Coast Artillery during the First World War, and had then enrolled in the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. He was a promising student and in 1922 he set off for Europe on a year's Pulitzer traveling scholarship. He soon landed in Vienna, got a job as a United Press stringer, holed up in the Café Louvre, where the foreign correspondents hung out and where he wrote his dispatches and held forth at his Stammtisch in one corner. He rarely left it except late in the night when he went home to his apartment, which he shared with an aging woman of mysterious but probably Levantine origin, whom we called "The Countess" but whom none of us correspondents ever saw.
In those days Bob Best was the most genial and generous of fellows. He would not only share his news stories with you, but file for you when you were ill or out of town. Though not a good writer or a very good reporter-he was too lazy to check up carefully on a story or to go out and dig for information-he was a mine of information and misinformation about Vienna, Austria, Central Europe, and the Balkans. He seemed to know everyone in town, including the most murky agents of the Comitadji and other Balkan conspiratorial groups. American visitors invariably looked him up at the Louvre, especially the well-known foreign correspondents who came and went-Dorothy Thompson, H. R. Knickerbocker, John Gunther, and others-and noted writers such as Sinclair Lewis (married to Dorothy) and H. L. Mencken, who showed up fairly regularly in Vienna to sample the beer, brush up his German, and chew the fat with the American newspapermen.
Bob Best's closest friend in Vienna was a Jew, a learned Hungarian who became a correspondent for British and American newspapers, and not only helped Bob in his job, but lent him money and regularly invited him for drinks and meals. In fact, many of Bob's friends among the journalists in Vienna were Jews. I mention this because ultimately he was to become the most virulent anti-Semite of all the anti-Semitic Americans broadcasting for Hitler.
How he got that way in the end I never could completely figure out. In my various tours of duty in Vienna from 1929 to 1938 I never would have suspected that Bob Best could become a vicious Nazi. I saw him for the last time on the evening of March 11-12, 1938, when Hitler took over Austria. He kept hoping against hope that the Nazis would fail. Once during the hectic evening, he came back from a telephone booth in the café and announced that the Austrian chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, had regained power. Once before Schuschnigg had put down a Nazi coup. The news was false, as Bob's news often was. But it expressed his hope. Later that evening, his friend Major Goldschmidt, Catholic but half Jewish and the leader of the Austrian legitimists who wanted to bring back a Hapsburg monarchy, came in and sat down next to Bob to check on the news. By this time Best, like the rest of us, knew that it was all over for Austria. The Nazis had taken over the capital and the country. Major Goldschmidt rose from Bob's table and said quietly: "Most of you have not agreed with me, but we've been friends. I say goodbye to you. This is the end for the monarchy and for the Jews. I will go home and get my revolver."
Best took the lead in trying to dissuade him. I remember that shortly afterward on that nightmarish evening, the wife of Best's closest friend, a beautiful Slovak, came into the Louvre. She was worried that her husband would be arrested as a Jew. Nazi thugs were reported to be already rounding up the Jews. Bob Best comforted her. Secret arrangements were being made, he assured her, for the American minister himself to take her husband out to Bratislava on the nearby Czech frontier.
After the Austrian Anschluss I moved my CBS headquarters to neutral Geneva and did not see Best again. But I kept in touch with him by letter and telephone, especially after the war started and I had to spend most of my time in Berlin. Three or four times I phoned him to ask him to broadcast for us on stories breaking in Central Europe that I could not get down to cover. On the phone he seemed his old self, and there was no trace of Nazi bias in his broadcasts for us.
Shortly before I left Berlin at the end of 1940, I had a letter from Best. He was in Vienna, and he wrote that he would stay on there "even if we get into the war." That was the first inkling I had that something might be happening to him. For if America "got into the war," it could only be against Germany, and that would make Bob an enemy alien unless…The thought bothered me. I had heard he had a new girlfriend, Austrian or German, who was an ardent Nazi.
When we did get into the war at the end of 1941, Best, like other Americans, was interned at Bad Nauheim until such time as Germans caught in the United States could be repatriated. Most of the internees were American diplomats and journalists, and I heard that Best soon began distancing himself from them. When in the spring of 1942 the Americans were finally allowed to leave Germany, Best chose to remain, "in the interest of history," he said, in an open letter to the American chargé d'affaires. By this time, the Nazi poison had taken effect. Best peppered his letter with anti-Semitic outbursts against his native land, which he said was being destroyed by "the Rascal-Roosevelt's Jewed-up Administration." Best lit out for Berlin and got a job as an American commentator on the Nazi propaganda broadcasts beamed on shortwave to America. Dr. Goebbels apparently liked Best's violent anti-Semitic vocabulary in denouncing the "Jew-nited States." The American turncoat soon became Berlin's star Jew-baiter.
At first he did not identify himself. He was introduced from Berlin as "Mr. Guess-Who." One spring evening in 1942 we identified him at the CBS Shortwave Listening Post in New York. The man on duty that evening happened to be an Austrian friend of mine who had been a newspaper editor in Vienna. He was a Jew and Best had befriended him. In fact, he told me later, the night the Nazis took over in Austria, Best had lent him a month's salary and helped him escape across the frontier to Czechoslovakia. He felt he owed his life to Best. Suddenly on this evening my Austrian friend burst into my office. He was excited and disturbed.
"There is someone talking from Berlin," he said, "who calls himself 'Mr. Guess-Who.' He sounds to me like Bob Best. But I can't believe it. Please come and listen."
I hurried to the booth, put on earphones, and listened. There was no doubt. It was Bob Best. He was thundering away at the Jews in America. My Austrian Jewish friend was in tears.
Once a week, on Sunday, I had a column in the New York Herald-Tribune, which also syndicated it around the country. It dealt largely with enemy propaganda. On Sunday, May 31, 1942, it began:
So Bob Best has turned traitor and decided to join Haw-Haw, Kaltenbach, Ward, Chandler and a few other English and Americans who have sold their native accents and their souls to Dr. Goebbels's shortwave propaganda station in Berlin….
Why did he do it?
Ever since that spring evening of 1942 I had mulled over that question. Why did Bob Best-why did Donald Day and the other Americans-do it? Most men turn traitors for money. Best never had much, but he didn't seem to mind. Nazi money couldn't have tempted him. I believe he got no more than the others, a thousand marks a month and perhaps a free apartment. In the end, I think, he did it out of ideology. He had finally been bitten by the Nazi bug, and it destroyed him.
One trouble with Best was that he stayed in Central Europe too long. He never went home to renew his roots, and gradually he put down new ones in the worst weedy patches of Mitteleuropa. He became alienated from his native land and its values, which he had absorbed in the small towns of the Carolinas in his youth. He became more and more Austrian at a time when the Austrians, like the Germans before them, began to see Adolf Hitler as a savior. There had always been a good deal of anti-Semitism in Vienna-that was where Hitler had first absorbed it as a youth-and apparently after the Anschluss in 1938, when Best's Jewish friends fled to escape what they knew would happen under Hitler, the American, now pretty much alone,[11] drifted more and more into Nazi circles, accompanied by his fiancée or perhaps led by her. At the same time, judging by his later broadcasts from Berlin, he reverted to the fundamentalist Christianity of his youth in the American South, where his father had moved from one small town to another as a Methodist preacher. But in his sick, Nazified mind fundamentalist Christianity, like America, like Western civilization, became threatened by sinister, Christian-hating Jews.
I wondered as my plane took off from London for home whether Bob Best and the others would be brought back home for trial. The British radio traitors had been swiftly tried, sentenced, and executed. Best and his American colleagues were still incarcerated in an American military prison in Germany. Why the delay? I wondered. I thought of something else. If Best were tried for treason in America, as the indictment called for, would I, as one who had known him, who had first identified him for the press and the U.S. government as the one who was broadcasting for Hitler, be called to testify against him? I could not excuse what I believed was his treason. Nevertheless, the prospect bothered me. He had been a friend and colleague.
***
The trip home in an army transport C-54 was uneventful. A group of Irish-American merrymakers from Boston, led by Mayor James M. Curley, came aboard. They had been in London to try to get the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations to locate the organization's world headquarters in their fair city. In London a week before, the commission had voted to make the permanent seat of the U.N. in the United States.
In Shannon, Ireland, where we stopped to refuel, the Boston delegates tanked up at an airport bar for the long hop across the ocean. They were in a festive mood and already filled the plane with the spirit of Christmas, which with luck and good weather we would get home just in time to celebrate.
I was excited at the prospect. I was going home this time for good. In fact, this was for me a farewell to Europe, to being a foreign correspondent. It had taken me a long time to come to a decision, but I had made it in the last months of the war. The twenty years abroad-my entire adult life-had been wonderfully full. A reporter's life had been interesting and sometimes exciting. I had come to feel at home in Europe, in London, Paris, Rome, Vienna, Berlin, Madrid, had picked up four languages in order to do my job and to get to know and enjoy different cultures, especially their rich literature. I had liked the work and the life. In Vienna I had married a Viennese and we had our first child there. It would have been easy and even pleasant to drift into staying on in Europe forever. CBS had offered me just that prospect: to succeed Ed Murrow, who was going home, as chief correspondent in Europe. It was tempting, but I had turned it down.
Instinctively, toward the end of the war I came to the realization that when it was over I must go home for good. Fascinating and fulfilling as my years in Europe had been, I would always be a stranger there, an eternal observer, unable to participate really in the life of any nation or people. It was difficult at first to admit this. But I had to face the truth that actually I had not put down any deep roots in Europe, not even in Paris and Vienna, which I loved and loved to live in, and where I felt more at home than in any American city.
After so long a time abroad I scarcely knew my native land. But that was where my roots were, that was where in the end I belonged, that was where I wanted to make my way for the rest of my life. I was forty-one. There was still time to start out afresh at home.
I was not alone in these feelings. Two of my closest friends and colleagues, John Gunther and Jimmy Sheean, had already made that decision, John before the war, and Jimmy, like me, before the war was over. Edgar Snow, another old friend, had felt similarly, I would find out later. He had spent most of his journalistic life in China, which he loved passionately and understood deeply, and which in turn had left an indelible impression on him. Later he would put it eloquently in his memoirs:
China had claimed a part of me even if I could make no claim on her. Part of me would always remain with China's tawny hills.…Yes, I was proud to have known [the Chinese], to have struggled across a continent with them in defeat, to have wept with them and still to share a faith with them.
But I was not and could never be one of them. A man who gives himself to the possession of an alien land…lives a Yahoo life.…I was an American.[12]
So I had turned down the chance to stay on in Europe. In London Ed Murrow and I had had a long talk about it. He himself-mistakenly, I thought-was going home to become CBS vice-president in charge of news and public affairs. I told him I thought it was foolish to give up what he had done better than any of us on the air to become a network executive.
"Stay on the air!" I had urged him. "You're the best there is. Besides, you're a lousy executive."
But Ed had made up his mind. He was confident he could shape the future of radio as a medium of the news better as an executive than if he remained on the air as a commentator. Even more important, he said, television was looming in the near future and in his new job he felt he could help develop it into a tremendous force in purveying, as no other medium could, the news. Why not join him, he said, as his assistant? We could do great things together.
But I was an even worse executive, I told him, than he was. I had no competence whatsoever. I would like to stay on the air as a reporter and a commentator, continue my Sunday column for the New York Herald-Tribune and its syndicate, write an occasional piece for the magazines, and, if I could find time, do another book. My first book, Berlin Diary, published in 1941, had done quite well. I did not tell Ed that my secret passion was to write books and that ultimately I hoped to end up doing just that. I didn't quite trust myself. Like most other journalists I would probably put off writing books simply because a steady job gave one some kind of security. I doubted that I had the guts to give up a regular salary check and strike out into the uncertain world of writing full-time.
Ed did not like my reply, and asked me to think it over. But I, too, had made up my mind.
***
Some of the members of the Boston party became so ill and unruly in the plane during the night that the pilot decided to make an unscheduled landing in Boston and get rid of them. One had suffered a heart attack and looked as if he might give up the ghost any moment.
My wife Tess, Eileen Inga, who was seven, and Linda, who was four, were at the airport in New York when we landed. Tess had found a beautiful apartment in an old house facing the East River at 50th Street and had just moved the family from Bronxville. She and the children had already decorated a large tree in one corner of the living room that faced on the river. Eileen and Linda scarcely recognized me.
"You going to stay home now?" they asked.
"Absolutely," I said. "No more wars. No more going away."
They dragged me to a Christmas service at Dalton, where they had recently enrolled, insisting that I keep my uniform on. They wanted to show me off, I guess. Then over to Fifth Avenue to see the brightly decorated shop windows. We mingled with the throngs of merry shoppers along the street and then we walked over to Park Avenue in the bracing December air just as the Christmas lights went on. Christmas Eve we sat around the fire and Tess and I read to the children from Dickens's Christmas Carol.
This was heaven. This was the good life. And it was easier than I thought at this Christmas reunion to erase, at least for this happy moment, the memory of the nightmare years in Europe that had led up to the war and into the war and that had robbed us, as it had millions of others, of this kind of a decent life together.
But from now on, I swore to Tess and Eileen and Linda, we would have it. There would be peace and some decency in the world and we would have it.
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