Princeton
In the dead of night on January 2–3, 1777, just hours after the Americans' second victory in Trenton, a hushed order spread through the camp. As quietly as possible, the men passed the message from one to another: they were moving out once again.
Although the ragtag Patriot force had once again beaten back the British on the banks of Assunpink Creek, remaining near the Delaware would have been perilous. They found themselves backed up against the river with a much larger British force just a few miles away. Washington called together a council of generals to discuss the situation. If they attempted to retreat across the Delaware with the few boats they had available, it was likely that the British would attack before they made it to the other side, potentially destroying or capturing a large portion of the American army. If they stayed where they were, it was almost certain Cornwallis would attack again in the morning. Although they had a good position defending the bridge over Assunpink Creek, the enemy might use one of the fords up-or downstream and flank the Patriot army.
At some point in the debate, someone, perhaps Washington himself, suggested an audacious third plan. Instead of continuing their retreat, they would march north, moving as quietly as possible around the left flank of the British army. They could then strike at Princeton. That New Jersey town had a much smaller garrison of British troops, and with Princeton under American control, the army could move on to New Brunswick, where it could capture some much-needed supplies, including a massive war chest of seventy thousand pounds.
While this plan was appealing, it had a major flaw: a recent thaw made the muddy roads nearly impassable-especially for the artillery. But as night fell, the temperature dropped, freezing the sloppy roads solid. Washington seized the opportunity and roused the men to action. Because the desperate gamble could work only if the enemy remained completely unaware of their movements, the Americans left their campfires burning along the Delaware as they began the long, cold march. "Orders were given in a whisper; muskets were gingerly handled and footfalls lightly planted." They even went so far as to wrap the wheels of their cannons in pieces of cloth to prevent any noise from reaching the ears of the sleeping enemy.
Though exhausted from the battle of the day before, the Continental Army reached a creek two miles outside Princeton around daybreak; in its wake it left a bloody track of footprints on the icy ground. The frosty weather had transformed the landscape, coating trees, fences, and each blade of grass in sparkling ice. One American officer recalled, "The morning was bright, serene, and extremely cold, with an hoar frost that bespangled every object." There Washington split his force so they could surround the town from two sides, as well as hold the crossing at the creek in case Cornwallis decided to pursue them. The small group of Marylanders and the Delaware Regiment (at this time reduced to a handful of men commanded by John Haslet) were attached to Hugh Mercer's brigade, who, along with John Cadwalader's Philadelphia Associators, were in the vanguard of the attack.
Three British regiments and several troops of dragoons were stationed in Princeton. Most were under orders to march to Trenton in the morning to link up with Cornwallis's troops. Having set out from Princeton before dawn, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood, a veteran of the Seven Years' War, was shocked by the sight of the Marylanders and the rest of Mercer's men as they emerged from the woods. "We drew up on a woody eminence and looked at them for a considerable time," recalled one of the British soldiers. "Colonel Mawhood had two choices, either to retire back to Princeton, where… we might have defended the works about it, or push on to Maidenhead where the 2d Brigade lay." Mawhood with his intial force of approximately seven hundred men chose to fight. He ordered his troops to drop packs, fix bayonets, and form a line of attack.
Mercer and his men, including the "remaining fragment" of Smallwood's Maryland Battalion led by Mordecai Gist, "rushed without reconnoitering into a thick planted orchard and were soon surprised to find themselves in the presence of a well [drawn] up line of infantry, with flanking [picket] and two pieces of cannon."
In the ensuing battle, the British executed a vicious bayonet charge. As they surged forward, they shot Mercer's horse out from under him and bore down on the Americans. Terrified, Mercer's men fled, despite their officers' cries. Now fighting on foot and forsaken by his troops, Mercer drew his sword, but took seven bayonet wounds to the belly and fell. Similarly, Delaware's intrepid John Haslet, who survived nearly drowning in the icy Delaware during the crossing on December 25, attempted to rally the men until a bullet to the brain killed him instantly.
Now virtually leaderless, the remaining men of the brigade ran for their lives, pursued by the British. At that moment, Cadwalader's much larger force of twelve hundred Philadelphia Associators arrived on the scene and joined the battle. Cadwalader rode to the front of the line and ordered his men to begin firing when the Redcoats were "too far off." As they came forward, the Patriots reloaded but soon found themselves within range of the British, whom Mawhood had positioned "so that every man could load and fire incessantly." Inspired by the Associators, some of Mercer's men, including the Marylanders, halted their flight and resumed fighting. The few remaining officers-Gist and Steward among them-held the men together at this crucial moment. However, Cadwalader's front lines quickly broke and "threw the whole in confusion." The entire Patriot force was soon retreating in disorder.
Seeing the flight of his men, General Washington galloped toward the front lines. Each time he passed a group of men, he encouraged them to find their courage and stand their ground, waving his hat to them before moving on. He "expostulated to no purpose," initially failing to rally the men. Eventually, he rode to within thirty paces of the British lines, presenting a tempting target to the Redcoats. A tremendous volley rang out as enemy marksmen aimed for the general. One of Washington's aides covered his own eyes with his hat rather than watch, but when the smoke cleared, Washington still remained on his horse, calling on his men to join him in facing the enemy.
"Parade with us, my brave fellows!" he shouted. "There is but a handful of the enemy and we will have them directly."
His leadership inspired one officer to write home, "O my Susan! It was a glorious day, and I would not have been absent from it for all the money I ever expect to be worth." The letter continued, "I shall never forget what I felt at Princeton on his account, when I saw him brave all the dangers of the field and his important life hanging as it were by a single hair with a thousand deaths flying around him. Believe me, I thought not of myself."
The Patriot forces and Marylanders rallied, and with Washington now directing the battle, soon overcame hundreds of British soldiers, many of whom threw down their arms and ran. Seeing the Redcoats in flight, Cadwalader shouted, "They fly, the day is our own." Soldiers up and down the line soon echoed his cry and enthusiastically surged toward Princeton in pursuit of the enemy. Fighting alongside Cadwalader's ranks were about 130 Continental Marines, the predecessors of the U.S. Marine Corps. Like the Marylanders, the unit could trace its origins to a tavern. The men had only recently left their ships. After conducting a raid at Nassau in the Bahamas several months earlier, they were fighting in their first major land engagement, the start of an epic 240-year legacy.
Washington, urging his men to pursue the British, repeated the humilating battle cry that British troops had shouted when his men fled the field at Harlem Heights:
"It is a fine fox chase, my boys!"
As they progressed, a dismal sight met their eyes. The landscape, which had been glistening white with frost earlier, was now covered in gore. Because the ground was frozen, "all the blood which was shed remained on the surface."
Alerted by the sound of cannon and gunfire, the British troops remaining in Princeton had positioned themselves for battle in Nassau Hall in today's Princeton University. The Americans brought a cannon to bear and fired into the building, forcing the bulk of the Redcoats to surrender. Washington's desperate plan to escape Cornwallis's force at Trenton and seize Princeton had succeeded.
Although the Americans were as poorly equipped as ever, the victory raised the spirits of the men and the entire country. One Maryland private recalled the two victories at Trenton and Princeton: "Gen'l Washington… gained a victory, taking a great many prisoners, with the loss of but few men. My regiment and company was in this engagement, and done their duty. I remember, that this active and unexpected movement of Washington's raised the spirits of the soldiers and people."
For the British, the twin debacles at Trenton and Princeton ended the notion that the rebellion was nearly broken. Word of the victories spread worldwide and ended the assumption that amateur citizen-soldiers who just months earlier had been farmers, bakers, and blacksmiths could not defeat the most highly trained and experienced regulars in the world. Even Prussian King Frederick the Great sent his praise: "The achievements of Washington and his little band of compatriots between the 25th of December and the 4th of January, were the most brilliant of any record in the annals of military achievements."
Trenton and Princeton had changed the tempo of the war; now Washington seized the initiative. Instead of pursuing a defeated American army, the Redcoats heard rumors of new threats: an army of American troops (the corps formerly led by the recently captured Charles Lee) advanced from Morristown, and New Jersey militiamen harassed supply lines among the few fortified garrisons. Misinformation planted by Washington led the British to believe the American armies were bigger than their own. William Howe's plan of offering pardons to Americans to attempt to win over the population of New Jersey was also severely damaged. Hessian Jaeger Captain Johann Ewald summed up the mood: "Thus had times changed! The Americans had constantly run before us. Four weeks ago we expected to end the war…. Now we had to render Washington the honor of thinking about our defense."
After holding the field at Princeton, Washington pursued small elements of Mawhood's routed troops about three miles toward New Brunswick. As he did many times during the Revolution, Washington called a council of war from the back of his saddle. He decided to give up the chase and also the prize: a war chest valued at seventy thousand pounds sterling, supplies, arms, and money stored in New Brunswick. Washington lamented that if he had only six or eight hundred more fresh troops they might have been able to take the town. But the men were exhausted.
Rather than push his luck and risk an engagement where he was outnumbered, Washington decided to continue on to the safety of the hills and broken wooded ground around Morristown, New Jersey, a small village containing "a church, a tavern, and about fifty houses of the better sort." It was a prudent decision: Cornwallis had surmised that Washington was headed toward New Brunswick and was preparing to fight. Morristown, by contrast, represented a temporary haven. It rested on a high plateau with steep slopes on two sides. A natural fortress, its only approach was from the east through small, treacherous passages. Notably, the earlier harvest from the rich farmland that surrounded the area could sustain the army. In addition, the town's location would allow the Continentals to move quickly if Howe advanced toward Philadelphia or the Hudson River.
Not long after reaching Morristown, Gist and the surviving Marylanders made the long trek home toward Baltimore. The officers needed to recruit men to refill the ranks. But first they had to crush an insurrection. Loyalists, including wealthy plantation owner James Chalmers, had revolted, creating an insurgency within the state. One of the Maryland delegates to the Continental Congress reported, "The Tories in Sussex [Delaware], Somerset and Worcester Counties, have been assembling for some days. They have 250 men collected at Parker's Mill, about nine miles from Salisbury, and 'tis reported they have three field pieces, which they received from the Roebuck [a British warship], with some men, with intention to seize the Magazine and destroy the property of the Whiggs."
Gist, William Smallwood, and a force of more than two thousand men marched to the Eastern Shore to quash the rebellion and imprison its leaders. The Maryland Assembly claimed that the region had set up "an armed force, and by erecting the standard of the king of Great Britain have invited the… enemy into their country." The size of the Patriot force dispersed the Loyalists, forcing them underground. Through the authority of the Council of Safety, Smallwood offered the local inhabitants (except the fourteen leaders of the revolt) a full pardon if they gave up their arms and took an oath of loyalty. Only 287 people accepted the deal. Smallwood's force captured a few of the leaders, but most, including Chalmers, got away and bided their time, waiting for the arrival of the British.
Eventually, some of these Loyalists formed the 1st Loyalist Maryland Regiment, a smaller mirror image of Smallwood's Battalion, which at its peak included 336 men. During this phase of the Revolution, they were busy aiding the British in whatever ways they could. For example, Chalmers served as a spy for the Crown and participated in "their ravaging and plundering Parties." He helped them secure horses and cows by seizing them from nearby farms. Another wealthy Eastern Shore landowner not only sold his own cattle to the British; he offered to let his neighbors keep their livestock in his fields "for protection" and then sold the lot of them to the British and "got for them a very large bagg of Gold." And Maryland Loyalist Robert Alexander, a former member of the Continental Congress, went so far as to offer his home to General Howe for use as a headquarters.
Another notable Maryland Loyalist, Dr. Alexander Middleton, served the British cause in a much more humanitarian way. He made plans to join the British army, but changed his mind when he saw the conditions in the Philadelphia prisons where the Americans were holding Tories. He spent some time treating the prisoners before a mob of angry Patriots ran him out of town. Eventually, he met up with Chalmers, who made him a captain in the Maryland Loyalsts. Later, injuries forced him to resign his commission and flee to England with his family.
Men weren't the only ones who joined the Loyalist cause; Elizabeth Woodward claimed to have fought alongside her husband. She said that she was wounded in the leg while helping to fire shipboard cannon in a naval battle. Her fairly unbelievable tales also include helping her husband and twenty-two other men escape imprisonment. When the Patriots caught up with her, one shot her in the left arm, "but, undismayed, [she] took a loaded firelock and shot the rebel." By her account, she then stole the dead American's horse and sold it to one of the British officers. The Loyalist fervor in sections of Maryland continued to ferment for some time to come, but in the short term, Smallwood and Gist had helped tamp down the Loyalists' activities.
In December 1776 Congress had called on each of the colonies to raise regiments based on its population. Maryland was required to furnish seven regiments, and Smallwood and Gist set about recruiting the necessary men. Congress promised those who signed up twenty dollars in cash, plus "a suit of clothes yearly" and one hundred acres of land to be awarded when the war was over. Despite the bounty, officers found it difficult to sign up recruits. Initially, six Maryland regiments took the field, with the veterans from the cadets and Smallwood's Battalion forming the cadre of each regiment. Gist led the 2nd Regiment; Smallwood retained command of the 1st. Although he had been in British captivity in New York City, Otho Holland Williams also led one of the regiments-at least on paper. John Eager Howard accepted a commission as a major in the 4th Maryland Regiment, where he was joined by newly minted Lieutenant William Beatty, and captains Jack Steward, Nathaniel Ramsay, and Samuel Smith.
The new recruits from all socioeconomic classes and from towns and villages throughout the entire state of Maryland marched up toward Morristown, where scores of new American regiments from around the colonies coalesced. With so many men gathered in one place, the situation was ripe for an epidemic, and smallpox ran rampant among the troops. A devastating disease, smallpox began much like flu, with fever, nausea, and achiness. Symptoms got much worse within a week or two; the patient developed pus-filled sores and began bleeding from all orifices. In many cases, victims suffered from dehydration and secondary infections, and around a third of smallpox patients died of the disease.
At the time of the Revolution, no one had yet developed an effective vaccine for smallpox, so the only option for prevention was inoculation. This process involved incising a sore and then inserting the contaminated knife below the skin on a healthy individual. Sometimes this resulted in a form of smallpox that was less likely to kill the victim, but often the person being inoculated got just as sick as people who caught the disease in other ways. Nevertheless, Washington ordered inoculation for the Continentals and the civilians in the area, which helped prevent the epidemic from becoming worse. One of those inoculated was Marylander John Boudy, who recalled that "the whole Army, or nearly all, was inoculated for the smallpox."
It's likely that Dr. Richard Pindell, a Maryland surgeon who joined the 1st Maryland Regiment on January 1, 1777, performed some of those inoculations. The intrepid doctor, who enjoyed a good party and dabbled in gambling, went on to accompany the regiment throughout the rest of the war, recording many of its actions in his letters. The physician wrote that he joined the troops because he was "fired by the love of liberty." That passionate patriotism led Pindell not only to treat the injured and dying but also to rally the troops and even take command, leading men into the fight for brief periods of time in several key battles. Through the course of his six years of service, he "repeatedly rejected the most flattering and Lucrative offers, during the War, if I would leave the Service and enter into Private Practice, by which I could without Doubt have made an Ample Fortune." Instead, he remained fully dedicated to the cause, even though he frequently received only half the pay he had been promised and the army confiscated his two horses. Later in life, he suffered financial hardships until the Maryland legislature approved a petition that gave him "full pay of Col. of Dragoons for life."
Doctor Pindell was hampered in his care of the sick by a lack of knowledge. Most physicians at the time had little formal instruction and trained as apprentices under other physicians. Unaware of germs, bacteria, and viruses, surgeons operated with unsanitary instruments, leading to gangrene and other frequently fatal diseases. If a wound from a musket ball was not too deep, the surgeon attempted to remove the ball and then stop the bleeding, leaving the wound open to drain. If the ball had fractured bones in multiple places, the only real option for treatment was amputation. To perform surgery, available instruments comprised a wicked-looking assortment of probes and ball extractors. Sharp lancets and saws were used to hack off limbs, while tourniquets, when they were available, choked off the bleeding artery. The surgery involved plying the patient with a strong dose of liquor (when it was available) and then offering him a stick to bite. Orderlies held him down while the surgeon sawed through the bone as quickly as possible. Next he tied off the arteries and sewed the wound shut over the remaining stump. Unsurprisingly, only a little over a third of the men who had an amputation survived.
State-of-the-art medicine for the period included a witch's brew of herbal remedies such as Peruvian or Jesuit's bark, potassium nitrate, camphor, laudanum (opium), jalap, castor oil, Epsom salts, ipecac, red mercuric oxide, and sulfur in hog's lard. The colonies imported most of their drugs from England. As the Revolution progressed and embargoes worked their effect, medicines and other supplies became quite scarce, making it more difficult to treat patients. Field hospitals degenerated into scenes of horror. One of the American generals wrote, "Our hospital, or rather house of carnage, beggars all description, and shocks humanity to visit. The cause is obvious; no medicine or regimen on the ground suitable for the sick; no beds or straw to lie on; no covering to keep them warm, other than their own wretched clothing." Doctor Pindell and the other surgeons worked tirelessly to save as many men as possible, but in such conditions, it's little wonder that disease and infection killed many of them.
By the middle of May, forty-three new Continental regiments had gathered near Morristown; on paper, Washington had around eighty-seven hundred troops, arranged in five divisions consisting of two brigades each. William Smallwood, now promoted to brigadier general, took command of the 1st brigade, which included the 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th Maryland Regiments. The 2nd Brigade consisted of the 2nd Maryland Regiment, under Gist, along with the 4th and 6th Maryland, as well as their brother regiment under arms, the Delaware Blues. Like the Marylanders, the Delaware Regiment had a core of solid veteran officers, including Robert Kirkwood and Enoch Anderson. Born in 1746, Kirkwood graduated from Newark Academy (now the University of Delaware) and worked on his family's farm before becoming a first lieutenant in the Delaware Regiment at the age of twenty-nine. Later promoted to captain and brevetted to major at the end of the war, "Captain Bob" led the Delaware Blues and fought alongside the Marylanders in some of the war's most important battles. A man of steel, Kirkwood marched thousands of miles and took part in thirty-three battles for his country. His unit was often used for reconnaissance missions or as an indefatigable rear guard.
The 2nd Brigade was commanded by a Frenchman, Brigadier General Philippe-Hubert, Preudhomme de Borre, a taciturn officer with an abusive leadership style. Born in 1717, Chevalier de Borre had served with the cavalry in the French royal army fighting in Bavaria, Bohemia, and Flanders during the Seven Years' War. After being slashed by a sword four times in the head and once on the wrist, he never regained full use of his hand. In February 1777 he arrived in America with a ship packed with gunpowder, weapons, and fabric for uniforms. The Marylanders snapped up the supplies, but passed on de Borre's abrasive leadership and had little respect for him. The Marylanders, now welded together through several very difficult campaigns, had formed close bonds, and did not appreciate being led by someone other than their own, especially a foreigner.
Throughout the winter of 1777 and into the spring, even before most of the reinforcements arrived, Washington's army and the militia conducted what Europeans called a petite guerre (little war) against Howe's men, who occupied outposts throughout New Jersey. They fought numerous skirmishes and small battles all across the state. On several occasions, Washington called on the Marylanders for particularly dangerous operations. The Americans hit the routes of British foraging parties and even engaged in battles that involved several hundred troops. Twenty-one-year-old Marylander Private Joseph Nourse described one such attack on Quibbletown (now Piscataway, New Jersey). He wrote, "The whole of us, about 400, marched into the Enemies lines and attacked… but we were so disadvantageously posted that we could not stand our ground. We fought for ½ an Hour and then retreated." Although the Americans didn't accomplish any larger strategic goals with this attack and others like it, they were slowly grinding away at the British army while avoiding heavy casualties on their own side.
Washington was waging a war of attrition. The Americans inflicted casualties, interrupted the British source of supply in New Jersey, and forced the enemy to lose ground there. Howe's plans to reclaim New Jersey were unraveling because he could not protect the Loyalist population or those who were undecided between the Crown and the Patriot cause. He simply didn't have enough troops to maintain a series of outposts that allowed him to remain in control. This problem continued to plague the British throughout the war. Utilizing the strength and flexibility of the British navy, the Redcoats could occupy just about any American city on the East Coast, but seizing and holding ground that they had captured remained elusive because there weren't enough troops or Loyalists trained, equipped, and trusted by the British.
The petite guerre and the losses at Trenton took a toll on the British army throughout 1777. Thousands of British and Hessian troops were killed, wounded, or captured, or died of disease. The army's numbers fell from thirty-one thousand in August 1776 to a little over fourteen thousand by 1777. Howe was never able to replace the casualties, even with additional reinforcements coming from England. This drove and hampered British strategy throughout the war.
With the onset of summer, the skirmishing continued as Washington began moving his troops from place to place in an effort to counter anticipated moves by Howe. The two armies danced around each other, often retracing their steps in an effort to gain a superior position from which to fight. William Beatty recalled some of the remarkable sights he witnessed while marching through New Jersey, such as the Great Falls of the Passaic River located in Paterson and a deformed child "whose head was larger than half a Bushell [four gallons]" but whose body was about the size of a seven-year-old's, with useless hands and feet and "skin as white as milk." The child had an encyclopedic knowledge of the Bible and "could quote almost any scriptural quotations asked of him."
Washington frequently assigned the Marylanders to serve as a blocking force while the rest of the army withdrew from a particular location. An elite unit, the Immortals[20] were to occupy an exposed position and engage the advancing British forces, hoping to slow the enemy's march long enough for the rest of the Patriots to reposition themselves.
[20]. The term "Immortals" is used to describe the men of the regiment, an elite unit that made many sacrifices throughout the war, not just the men who who sacrified themselves at Brooklyn.
Because they often occupied forward positions away from the bulk of the army, a lack of uniforms and supplies continued to plague the Marylanders. One officer reported that the soldiers were "mostly Barefoot though they have Done more marching than any other division in the Army." He worried that the problems would "multiply Desertions among us Daily," but this fear never became a reality: only a handful of the men deserted. And when they did desert, General de Borre dealt ruthlessly and swiftly with them and anyone who assisted them. Deserters who were recaptured were typically shot, and Loyalists found aiding them were given a quick court-martial and executed. Lieutenant Beatty remembered, "The court passed sentence of Death on him which Genl DeBore ordered to be put in Execution by Hanging the poor fellow [Tory] on the limb of a sycamore close on the side of the road."
After Washington's retreat from New York, Howe had left some troops behind on Staten Island. These men regularly foraged for food in the surrounding area, capturing livestock and causing consternation among the local residents. Based on some faulty intelligence, Washington believed that this force consisted primarily of inexperienced American Loyalists. A strike at Staten Island seemed to offer an easy opportunity for victory as well as the chance to earn the goodwill of the inhabitants by slowing and perhaps halting the British raids along the Jersey coast. The island also held a fort that controlled the Narrows, the southern waterway into New York Harbor and toward Manhattan.
Washington ordered Brigadier General John Sullivan to lead a raid on Staten Island in late August 1777. The New Hampshire native and former foreclosure lawyer had been captured in the Battle of Brooklyn but returned to duty in September 1776 in a prisoner exchange, and he played important roles in the battles at Trenton and Princeton. For the assault on Staten Island, his force would include "only those who were most active & best able to Endure a march" from the brigades led by Smallwood and de Borre. About a thousand men in all, his force consisted primarily of Marylanders and men from the Delaware Regiment. To throw off any enemy spies, Sullivan headed south out of camp before turning east. Smallwood's men led the way as the men crossed by boat to Staten Island.
The raid began as planned. Caught unaware, the surprised Loyalist troops took off running, allowing the raiders who intended to stop plundering to become plunderers themselves. They rounded up a number of prisoners and collected a considerable amount of arms and equipment. Before too long, Smallwood's men ran into a surprise of their own-the British 52nd Regiment of Foot. Equally stunned by the appearance of the Patriots, the British troops fled back into their fortifications on the island. Enoch Anderson from the Delaware Regiment recalled, "My line of march brought me near to a large brick house. Here I found some of the British. But a few only of them turned out-got round a haystack-fired one gun and then run."
The sight of enemy regulars running for cover convinced Sullivan's force that they had won the day. Abandoning any pretense of discipline, they ransacked the homes of the officers, grabbing whatever food and supplies they could find. One officer from de Borre's brigade later testified, "Our people [were] in a scattered, disorderly and dangerous situation; I made use of every effort to curb the licentiousness and stop the greedy grasp of our Soldiers, but found they had such a propensity to plunder that my exertions were ineffectual." Anderson said that, finding a house full of "lawful plunder," he sent his men inside to grab what they could while he remained outside and beat a drum to let them know when to come out.
While the Patriots were running amok and picking the area clean, the disciplined British regulars and their Loyalist allies regrouped behind their fortified walls. The Redcoats suddenly advanced on Sullivan's troops, who were no longer in any shape to engage with the enemy. Now it was the Patriots' turn to run. Anderson reported that Colonel Stone galloped past him, yelling, "Run, run, it's no disgrace!" The Marylanders bolted toward the crossing point, hoping to escape from the island back to New Jersey. "Here was great confusion," noted Anderson, "no commander-soldiers running at their will, and not boats enough; there being some unhappy error about the boats. I saw a boat coming over and kept my eye on it, and as it came nearer the shore, I came nearer to it. I kept my men in a solid body and I and my company entered the boat. We got safe over." The rear guard of approximately 150 men, led by Jack Steward, made several bold stands to allow the bulk of the Marylanders to escape. All Smallwood's men and most of de Borre's made it across. Captain William Wilmot, a wealthy Baltimore native and friend of Steward, described the action in a letter: "They came down on us with about 1000 of their heroes, and attacked us with about 500 of their new troops and Hessians expecting I believe that they should not receive one fire from us but to their great surprise they received many as we had to spare and had we had as many more they should have been welcome to them, they made two or three attempts to rush on us, but we kept up such a blaze on them, that they were repulsed every time."
Although he himself never surrendered, Wilmot saw Steward taken captive.
"What grieved me after seeing that it was not the lot of many of us to fall and our ammunition being expended, that such brave men were obliged to surrender themselves Prisoners to a dastardly, new band of murderers, natives of the land [Loyalists], when our ammunition was all spent Major [Steward] took a white handkerchief and stuck it on the point of his Sword, and then or'd the men to retreat whilst he went over to their ground, and surrendered, for he had never gave them an inch before he found that he had nothing left to keep them off with the enemy advancing fast to surround us," he wrote. "Even in that situation [I] found my self determined never to surrender and could do nothing else was obliged to run and strive to conceal myself which I did effectually, in a barn on some hay that was up in the roof of the Barn."
Terrified, the boatmen refused to go back to rescue what remained of the rear guard. Some of the troops were able to hide in the woods or swim to safety, but most of those who remained were taken prisoner.
The disastrous raid on Staten Island failed to meet any of its objectives. While only ten Americans were killed, the Patriots suffered the loss of numerous enlisted men and officers who were taken prisoner, including Steward. In all, the British captured three majors, one captain, three lieutenants, two ensigns, one surgeon, and 127 privates.
Following the ill-fated assault, Gist and Smallwood returned to Maryland for more recruiting-specifically militia. Sullivan and the rest of the officers and men rejoined Washington's army. The commander in chief wasn't sure about Howe's next move, but evidence pointed toward an attack on Philadelphia. Meanwhile, Steward and more than one hundred Marylanders were about to experience the horrors of internment aboard British barges and ships in New York Harbor.
Chapter 17
Brandywine
In a well-ordered column, twelve men abreast, the Marylanders marched to the beat of the fife and drum. Each man wore a green sprig in his hat, an optimistic symbol of victory. Washington also thought the greenery would spruce up the appearance of the army, which lacked common uniforms. The commander in chief gave the army strict orders to stick with the rhythm: "[No] dancing along or totally disregarding the music, as too often has been the case." He added a further warning that anyone who stepped away from the carefully choreographed parade would receive thirty-nine lashes.
The Marylanders and the rest of George Washington's army once again were marching through the streets of Philadelphia on August 24, 1777, as part of a public relations maneuver. Despite being the young nation's capital, Philadelphia was known as a haven for Tories. Washington, who had the instincts of a showman, hoped to sway their allegiance with a show of strength and élan. He led the parade himself on his impressive great white charger. Then came the army. In all, it took more than two hours for the American troops to cross through the center of town. Bolstered by the shouts and claps of Philadelphians who crowded into windows and onto rooftops to watch, the men marched "with a lively smart step."
For months during the summer of 1777, Washington had been trying to divine William Howe's next move. The British general tried various feints and deceptions to draw the American army into battle. Although Washington dispersed smaller forces to guard against various possibilities, he refused to be drawn into an ill-conceived battle that was not on his terms. "We have such contradictory accounts from different quarters that I find it impossible to form any satisfactory judgment of the real motions and intentions of the enemy," he noted.
However, Washington was fairly certain that Howe planned to attack Philadelphia, eventually. As a countermeasure, the American general lined up defenses along the Delaware, the most convenient means of approach to the city. His guess seemed confirmed when the British troops loaded up on 228 ships in New York. Howe once again used naval superiority to his advantage to confuse and deceive Washington. Rather than turn into the Delaware as expected, he kept going. The American commander in chief was flummoxed. "I confess the conduct of the enemy is distressing beyond measure and past our comprehension," he admitted. Howe kept sailing for several more weeks, entering Chesapeake Bay and making his way back north before landing in an area known as Head of Elk, about fifty miles southwest of Philadelphia. He "must mean to reach Philadelphia by that route, though to be sure it is a very strange one," decided Washington.
With Howe's unconventional plan revealed, Washington prepared to meet the enemy. After the parade through Philadelphia, the Marylanders and the rest of the army marched to Chadd's Ford, which crossed Brandywine Creek. Filled with steep hills and ravines, Chadd's Ford offered a natural defensive position. The Americans held the high ground and most, but not all, of the important fords. They structured the defenses to force the British to battle their way across the Brandywine, funneling the Redcoats through the fords, which would act as kill zones. Preparing his troops for battle, Washington told them that if they defeated the Crown at Brandywine, "they are utterly undone-the war is at an end. Now then is the time for our most strenuous exertions." To fortify them for the coming fight Washington ordered the casks opened and gave each of the men an extra gill, about five fluid ounces, of rum. Liquor was an important component of eighteenth-century military life. The liquid courage could lift sagging morale. Washington also added another element of effective persuasion to minimize cowardice: any man fleeing the battlefield would be shot by American riflemen.
Washington spread his forces along a five-mile stretch of the creek to guard eight fords. The bulk of the Maryland forces fought under Brigadier General John Sullivan on the right side of the battle line at Brinton's Ford. The Delaware Regiment, detached from Smallwood's Battalion, guarded Jones's Ford. The men quickly prepared for a major battle, felling trees and hastily throwing up fortifications. Maryland officer William Beatty recalled, "As the Approach of the Enemy gave reason to Apprehend an Attack, the whole of the troops were ordered to throw up Breast Works in front of their respective camps." But Washington had made a crucial mistake. He left two fords to the north unguarded, either because he had inadequate intelligence about the area or because he didn't believe the enemy would travel the extra ten miles upriver to reach the crossings. On September 10 Sullivan even asked about fords farther upstream, but Washington's aides assured him these wouldn't be a problem. They were wrong.
Howe's spies informed him the northerly fords remained unguarded, and he decided on a near repeat of his strategy at the Battle of Brooklyn. In the early morning hours of September 11, 1777, sixty-one-year-old Prussian Lieutenant General Wilhelm Reichsfreiherr (Baron) zu Inn und Knyphausen led a column of five thousand to six thousand men directly up the main road to meet the bulk of Washington's army and the Marylanders at Chadd's Ford and the other nearby crossings. Knyphausen, like General James Grant at Brooklyn, led the unit meant to pin Washington down and to distract him from the flanking force. That force, led by Howe and Charles, Earl Cornwallis, included a slightly larger group of sixty-five hundred Hessians and Redcoats. They marched in a long looping route to the west before cutting back across to Jeffries Ford and attacking the rebels' flank from the north.
Marsch, schräg nach rechts! (Incline to the right!)
Marsch, schräg nach links! (Incline to the left!)
Halt!
Angriff! (Charge!)
A Hessian officer barked orders in guttural German.
"The balls [were] plowing up the ground. The Trees crackling over one's head. The branches riven by the artillery. The leaves falling as in autumn by the grapeshot," recalled one Hessian who was near the Brandywine at Chadd's Ford as they were trying to pin down the Americans while General Howe and Cornwallis conducted their flanking maneuver.
As the battle unfolded and Knyphausen's force surged forward, Washington decided on an audacious strategy. He would go on the offensive and attack the enemy's left and right flanks as the Prussian was striking the American center. Washington ordered Sullivan and the Marylanders, who were on the extreme left, to cross the Brandywine and attack the Hessians' right flank. Samuel Smith of the 4th Maryland recalled, "Colonel [Nathaniel] Ramsay of the Maryland Line [Mordecai Gist's 3rd Regiment], crossed the river, and skirmished with and drove the Yagars" for a time. One soldier near the fight observed that the water of the creek was "much stained with blood."
Washington led from the thick of the action with soldiers falling around him. Even as enemy fire beheaded an artilleryman next to him, the general kept cool. According to legend, British Major Patrick Ferguson had Washington in his sights at one point, but didn't fire because his chivalrous nature prevented him from killing a man whose back was turned. Minutes after the encounter, an American rifleman wounded the honorable British officer.
Veiled in thick fog off to the west, Cornwallis's flanking force was closing in on its goal. A few sharp-eyed scouts reported the movement, and Washington had Sullivan send some units to investigate. However, the reports he received back were of a very contradictory nature, leaving the general unaware of the approaching menace. The troops led by Howe and Cornwallis had reached Jeffries Ford. Shortly after noon, they plunged into the waist-high water, marveling that the way had been left wide open though it could have been held with a hundred men. Soon they passed through the woods near the creek and swarmed into the nearby farmland. A young Quaker who lived in the area saw their arrival and wrote, "In a few minutes, the fields were literally covered with them…. Their arms and bayonets being raised shone as bright as silver, there being a clear sky and the day exceedingly warm." He noted Cornwallis's presence and panache: "He was on horseback, appeared tall and sat very erect. His rich scarlet clothing loaded with gold lace, epaulets, &c., occasioned him to make a brilliant and martial appearance." On the other hand, the Quaker wasn't impressed by Howe's appearance. "The general was a large, portly man, of coarse features. He appeared to have lost his teeth, as his mouth had fallen in."
By 1:15 p.m. Washington was realizing his fatal mistake and began pulling men away from the creek to meet the new British threat on his northern flank. At 2:30 Washington ordered Sullivan to stop his attack on Knyphausen and instead move north to face off against Cornwallis and Howe. The Marylanders, unfamiliar with the area, stumbled and ran through ravines, marshland, thickets, and fields trying to meet up with their countrymen and find the enemy. Sullivan recalled, "I neither knew where the enemy were, nor what route the other two divisions were to take, and of course could not determine where I should make a junction with them."
Eventually, Sullivan made it to the battlefield, but confusion again reigned as he attempted to position his troops. He first placed the Marylanders and others under his charge in front of a large wooded hill but soon noticed other American forces lined up behind him. Concerned, he "rode up to Consult the other General officers." Brigadier General Philippe-Hubert Preudhomme de Borre was temporarily in command of the Marylanders. With Smallwood and Gist both detached from the Maryland Line and organizing the militia, the Marylanders were left without two key leaders they had followed in the past. From the motions of the British force in front of them, the American officers could tell that Howe and Cornwallis planned a flanking action. To counter the threat, they needed to reposition Sullivan's men closer to the unit commanded by Lord Stirling, and they sent orders to that effect to de Borre. Strangely, de Borre promptly led the men in virtual circles.
Consequently, Sullivan and the Marylanders were still racing to get into position when the British attacked shortly after 4:00 p.m. Stone explained, "By the time we reached the ground they had to cannonade the ground allotted to us, which was very bad, and the enemy within musket shot of it before we were ordered to form the line of battle."
Immediately before the battle began, the Marquis de Lafayette came riding out of the woods to join the Maryland Line. Bestowed with the tongue-twisting name Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch-Gilbert du Motier de Lafayette, the marquis was a wealthy French aristocrat who had dreamed since childhood of becoming a famous military commander. He volunteered to fight in America as a nineteen-year-old and had turned twenty just days before the battle. Washington had immediately taken a liking to the young man, making him an important liaison with France.
After their humiliating defeat in the Seven Years' War, the French burned for vengeance. Encouraging England's colonies to revolt against their mother country seemed like a good payback for the humiliating terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Even prior to the Revolution, the French sent secret emissaries to survey the American landscape and sound out interest in independence. America also sent representatives to France to make the case for French involvement. They played up the mutual interest of both countries: here was an opportunity to settle old scores and redress the balance of power that had shifted in Britian's favor. American ambassdors, led by Benjamin Franklin, pushed for loans and the ability to purchase gunpowder and other supplies on credit.
While the French recognized that the Revolution was in their interest, they weren't convinced it was time for a formal treaty. They had concerns about the cost of the war and whether the Americans could win. In addition, King Louis XVI had to be careful about supporting the idea of rebellion against royal authority. Meanwhile, foreign fighters from France started offering their services to America. It actually became quite fashionable in Paris to seek a commission in the American army and the chance to win battlefield laurels. For most of the foreign fighters, the rose-colored view of war changed dramatically when they started fighting alongside the threadbare American army. But some French officers, like Lafayette, willingly risked life and fortune for the cause.
Shortly after Lafayette arrived at the Marylanders' position, "Lord Cornwallis's men suddenly emerged from the woods in very good order," noted Lafayette. They brought two twelve-pounders with them, and a bloody fight ensued. Lafayette was shot in the leg but still courageously attempted to rally the men. Also grazed by a bullet was John Boudy, who was fighting alongside Jack Steward. Boudy recalled that he "received a wound from a musket ball in his knee, which disqualified him from duty in the line till the Winter following."
One of the Patriot soldiers added, "The firing, while the action lasted, was the warmest, I believe, that has been in America since the war began." Henry Wells of the Delaware Regiment recalled, "During the fight, the wind favored the enemy and drove the Smoke directly in our faces which was one great cause of our discomfiture."
Less than an hour after it began, the battle turned into a rout as the Americans, led by de Borre, fled the battlefield. Lafayette explained, "The American fire was murderous, but both their right and left wings collapsed." Confusion grew, and some of the Marylanders accidentally began to fire upon their own men. It was the last time de Borre commanded American troops.
With men running for their lives, one Marylander proved unflappable. The most unlikely man trying to reestablish the American line that day went into action: Dr. Richard Pindell, their militant surgeon. It was the doctor's first pitched battle. "I rallied a considerable number of the retreating troops," he said, "formed them in Order, after they were driven from the field and keep command of them until an [officer] fell in and took command." He later explained, "I have done some military achievements that would have done Honour to those whose duty it was meet in Battle of the Bristled Bayonetts."
Back at Chadd's Ford, where Knyphausen's men briefly halted, bizarrely, "a total silence ensued." The general had ordered his men to stand down to await the outcome of the fight to the north. As time ticked away, "We began to be uneasy about General Howe for a great force of the rebels marched from the hills and woods before us toward him," wrote one of the British artillerymen. Those fears did not last long; within hours they began to see Sullivan's men "running in multitudes out of the woods. We now began again with all our artillery to play on the flying scoundrels; the fire was returned by them from all their batteries."
The fleeing Marylanders scrambled across the rocky terrain pursued by the British and the Hessians. The Redcoats brought their cannon with them and continued firing at the Americans. "We renew our fire from the artillery to scour the woods," reported one of the British soldiers. "They fly from all quarters." Colonel John Hoskins Stone of the 1st Maryland, a former lawyer and later a politician, said that he expected higher losses than actually occurred. "Never was a more constant and heavy fire while it lasted, and I was much amazed when I knew the numbers that were killed and wounded."
For many of the Maryland men, the rout at the Brandywine was seared in their memories. For African American Private Thomas Carney, a cordial twenty-three-year-old freeman likely from Queen Annes County, this was his first taste of battle. He was "well over six feet tall and noted for his great strength." This was also the first battle for Private James Gooding, who had recently rejoined the army after spending a good deal of time recovering from his smallpox inoculation. Another newcomer, Michael Ellis, reached the battle by a much more unusual path. During the early part of the war, he had been a sailor on a merchant ship captured by the British. He remained a prisoner on a frigate, but "when said frigate entered the Delaware River, [Ellis] made his escape and joined the Maryland Continental troops then at Brandywine." Marylander Jacob Allen also remembered the fight because he was "wounded in the hand and in the face," but recovered. Henry Wells of the Delaware Regiment was also injured. He later recalled, "We were led from the field into a Swamp, where the efforts of the horse were rendered ineffectual, from the nature of the ground. In the action I received a flesh wound in the right haunch, the scar occasioned by which is plainly visible at this day."
Eventually, many Maryland officers and NCOs organized their men to make a stand and allow the remainder of the army to escape. Stone recalled, "We retreated about a quarter of a mile and rallied all the men we could, when we were reinforced by Greene's and Nash's corps, who had not till that time got up. Greene had his men posted on a good piece of ground, which they maintained for some time, and I dare say did great execution." Nearby, as the 4th Maryland, led by Smith, passed through a nearby cornfield, they "discovered a flanking party of the enemy." They exchanged fire, and one of the Marylanders "was shot in the heel." The men panicked again. "Some of the men left [Smith]; and [I] retired, almost alone to the top of a high hill, on which [I] halted, and collected nearly one thousand men; formed them into Companies; and remained until near sunset."
The late attempts to reengage in battle couldn't change the fact that the fight had already been lost. Smith decided to abandon his hilltop post and make his way to Chester, Pennsylvania, where he hoped to meet up with the rest of the army. Unfortunately, he didn't know the way. He found a local farmer, one of the many Quakers in the area, and asked him to guide the Americans to the right road. As a devout pacifist, the man initially refused. Smith pointed a pistol at the farmer and "assured him he was a dead man if he did not get his horse instantly and show the way to Chester."
"What a dreadful man thou art!" exclaimed the Quaker, who then saddled his horse and got ready to direct Smith to the road.
Before leaving, Smith offered a warning: "Now, I have not entire confidence in your fidelity, but I tell you explicitly, that if you do not conduct me clear of the enemy, the moment I discover your treachery, I will blow your brains out."
"Why, thou are the most desperate man I ever did see!" exclaimed the man, now truly frightened. He offered the Maryland officer his word and led him to the correct road. At that point, Smith thanked him for his help.
"I want no thanks, thee forced me!" replied the Quaker.
Chapter 18
Wayne's Affair
A young girl's desperate shriek pierced the air. There in the house was her father's blue and buff uniform-the same uniform he had worn when leaving for war-but now it was soaked in blood.
"Oh my Daddy's killed, my dear Daddy's killed!" she wailed, tears streaming from her eyes.
The plaintive sound drew the attention of the house's other occupant. To his daughter's great relief, Lieutenant Colonel Persifor Frazer of the 5th Pennsylvania came rushing into the room. He wasn't dead, just one of the hundreds wounded at the Brandywine. With his home nearby, Frazer had taken the opportunity to stop in, pick up a few things, and see his family. However, the visit was short, and Frazer soon rejoined the rest of the Continental soldiers seeking to escape from General William Howe.
Another wounded American soldier wasn't so lucky and faced the stark reality of British imprisonment or service to the Crown. Michael Dougherty of the Delaware Regiment claimed, "I fought with desperation till our ammunition was expended and my comrades being compelled to retire, I was left helpless and wounded on the ground, and fell into the hands of the enemy." Because "confinement was never agreeable to me," Dougherty agreed to join the British cause, accepting the "King's bounty" and joining the 17th Regiment. This was not the last time Dougherty was captured, or the last time he turned his coat.
The battle was bloody with hundreds of dead and wounded-on both sides. Howe ordered his men to bury the dead and tend to the wounded, slowing their movement. As the bulk of Washington's army retreated east of the Brandywine toward Chester, Pennsylvania, Howe once again failed to vigorously pursue his defeated foe. Passing through Chester, Washington veered slightly north, then marched through Darby, Pennsylvania. His force then crossed a pontoon bridge that spanned the Schuylkill at Middle Ferry, near today's Market Street Bridge in Philadelphia.
Howe and Cornwallis pursued, and skirmishing broke out near White Horse Tavern on the outskirts of the city. Far from defeated, many of the Americans welcomed the chance to engage the enemy. Captain Bob Kirkwood of the Delaware Line recalled, "Every one Rejoiced, hoping to see [the British] in a few hours."
As the British approached the Americans, Hessian Colonel Count Karl von Donop decided to lead his Jaegers into battle personally. British light infantry followed the Jaegers. Surprised by the attack, Washington positioned his army poorly. Making matters worse, only a few roads provided an escape route.
Washington's adjutant general gloomily informed the commander in chief of the impending peril. "The order of battle is not complete. If we are to fight the enemy on this ground the troops ought to be immediately arranged." It looked as though the British army would have the opportunity to strike a crushing blow unless the Americans could gain the high ground on the far side of the valley. Hurriedly, the Americans rushed toward the more favorable ground, but the Hessians had already arrived and begun fighting the Patriots.
Fortunately for the Americans, weather once again intervened at the most opportune moment. "An extraordinary thunderstorm occurred, combined with the heaviest downpour in the world," wrote Hessian Captain Johann Ewald. Despite the torrential rain, the British forces weren't ready to give up their attack plans: the Jaegers and light infantry charged with sword and bayonet. Ewald and his men became enmeshed in hand-to-hand combat. The rain dampened the powder of both armies, caused their weapons to misfire, and forced an end to the melee. Marylander John Eager Howard, recently having rejoined the army after attending his father's funeral in Baltimore, recalled, "The inferiority of [our] arms… never brought [us] into imminent peril as on this occasion." But the weather once again gave the American army an opportunity to retreat. William Beatty remembered, "Hard rain that took us to the Waist & under the arms." Because the weather played the deciding factor in the conflict, it became known as the Battle of the Clouds.
After putting enough distance between his army and the British, Washington ordered General Anthony Wayne's two brigades, a complement of Continental dragoons, and four light cannon to link up with Maryland militiamen led by Mordecai Gist and William Smallwood traveling from Baltimore and get behind Howe's rear and harass him. The general emphasized that "cutting off the Enemy's Baggage would be of great matter." Washington ended his orders with a dire warning: "Take care of Ambuscades."
Born to a family of Irish immigrants in Pennsylvania, Anthony Wayne trained as a surveyor and worked in that capacity for Benjamin Franklin, in addition to assisting with his father's tannery business. When war broke out, the charismatic thirty-year-old recruited a militia regiment, of which he became colonel. Commonly known as Mad Anthony, Wayne earned a reputation for a hot temper. In the midst of battle, he had an almost berserk manner and had been heard to call out to his men, "I believe a sanguine god is rather thirsty for human gore!"
The British knew about Wayne's plans and that his encampment was somewhere within a several-mile radius of Paoli Tavern, located near present-day Malvern, Pennsylvania. They dispatched seventeen hundred light infantry and a few dragoons to "surprise these gentlemen." In a daring nighttime assault, the British ordered their men to unload their weapons and march in silence-they would use only bayonet and sword in the attack to preserve the element of surprise. As they began the march, an electric mood enveloped the Redcoats: "the lads were all in high spirits in hopes of a frolic."
Light rain fell while they marched toward Paoli. After a little more than an hour, they came upon Wayne's camp around midnight. An outpost on the outskirts of Wayne's camp notified the general that the British were bearing down on his sleeping men. Mounting his horse, he rode through the camp and shouted, "Turn out my Boys, the Lads are coming, we gave them a push with the Bayonet through the Smoak."
As the British descended on the American bivouac, Wayne's British counterpart, General Charles Grey, shouted at his men, "Dash, Light Infantry!"
"HUZZAH!"
The guttural war cry echoed through the woods as hundreds of Grey's men hacked, slashed, and bayoneted their way into the American camp. Panic ensued.
Around the same time, Smallwood and Gist with a force of twenty-one hundred Maryland militia their way and three cannon were slowly working their way toward Wayne. The Redcoats had managed to load their muskets, and as shots rang out, the militia grew skittish. "One of our Men about the center of the Main Body was shot Dead by some of their Stragglers, which threw great part of our Line in great Consternation, many flung down their Guns & Ran off, & have not been heard of since," Smallwood wrote. The cavalry with him drew friendly fire: "The Rear taking us for British light Horse fired a Volley on us within 15 or 20 Foot, wounded several, and killed a light Horseman alongside of me in waiting for Orders." Smallwood stopped the friendly fire by dismounting and sardonically yelling out to the militia, "I should have been glad to have seen them as ready to fire on the Enemy as they now seemed on their friends."
Gist attempted to rally the poorly trained men but nearly died in the melee as he covered the rear of their retreat. He wrote to Captain John Smith of his own regiment, "My Horse received two Balls through his Neck but fortunately only fell on his Knees and Hams otherwise I must have received the Bayonet or fallen into their Hands." Smith, a fellow Baltimorean, was a close friend of Gist's and rose through the ranks of his unit. This incident did nothing to halt the terrified, fleeing Marylanders. Out of the original twenty-one hundred militiamen, more than a thousand deserted.
Wayne's men fought more bravely, but the attack diminished their ranks. The British sneak attack left nearly three hundred of them killed, wounded, or captured. On the enemy's side, only three were killed and eight wounded. The "Paoli Massacre" shocked Washington, who now maneuvered to avoid being trapped against the Schuylkill and Howe's army. But instead of attempting battle, the British general marched ten miles up the river and slipped into Philadelphia unopposed, capturing the American capital on September 26, 1777. In the eighteenth century, capturing the enemy's capital normally meant the end of the conflict. A year earlier, the loss of Philadelphia might have been a knockout blow to the rebellion, but with Washington's army intact and word of a British advance from Canada stalled near Saratoga, New York, Congress fled the city rather than surrender. The Marylanders and the rest of the Patriot forces steeled themselves for a counterattack.
On the morning of October 4, 1777, the Marylanders once again found themselves at the vortex of a major battle. Heavy fog and black smoke from burning fields of buckwheat created a hellish scene as the Marylanders assaulted the far right wing of the British army camped in Germantown. Visibility was measured in yards. One American reflected, "The fire of cannon and musketry, and other combustibles… made such a midnight darkness… that [a] great part of the time there was no discovering friend from foe."
The stage had been set a little over a week before when the British quickly seized control of Philadelphia without an urban battle, because the Americans had evacuated the capital. Washington wasn't willing to let the prize go without a fight. He began laying plans for an elaborate assault on Germantown, a small village about five miles north of the city that later became part of Philadelphia proper. General Howe had stationed about nine thousand of his men in the town. Washington, who had eight thousand Continentals and three thousand militiamen at his disposal, believed that he had the resources necessary to defeat Howe, the first step in his strategy for reclaiming the City of Brotherly Love.
Once again demonstrating a proclivity for complex battle strategies, Washington created a highly detailed plan that called for marching his troops in the dead of night from their camp at Methacton Hill. If all went as scheduled, separate pincer movements would converge on the British camp in the morning. Each unit would be required to travel between fourteen and twenty-five miles without alerting the enemy in order to reach its assigned location. Washington would lead a column of three thousand men, including most of the Marylanders, up the center on the main road from the west. Greene, General Adam Stephen, and Brigadier General Alexander McDougall would take the left flank with another six thousand men. The Maryland militiamen, led by Smallwood and Gist, would hold the extreme left pincer and march down an ancient Indian trail known as Old York Road. Each of the groups needed to be in position by 5:00 a.m. in order to begin the coordinated attack-something even the most drilled and experienced army would find difficult to execute. For Washington's group of militia and slightly more experienced Continentals, it was ambitious in the extreme.
From the very beginning, poor visibility hampered the assault. A thick fog rolled in, which, combined with the complicated system of roads and the moonless night, made it very difficult for the commanders to navigate. The bulk of the Marylanders were unfortunately still under the command of John Sullivan, and the triple debacles at Long Island, Staten Island, and Brandywine-thanks to his inept leadership-remained seared in many of the men's minds. The Marylanders under Sullivan got lost, as did the other column of Continentals. Despite being behind schedule, Sullivan called a halt so that his men could rest and drink a bit of rum to fortify themselves for battle. They were soon back on their feet and in the correct position for the attack, but they had missed the 5:00 a.m. start time. The sun was already up, although it was difficult to see through the fog, which only grew thicker with the break of day.
Having received a warning about the American attack, the British had posted pickets to keep watch for the approaching enemy. They soon spotted the advancing column, and the artillery opened fire, killing several Patriots. With the fight already begun, Sullivan hurriedly ordered his men to assume battle positions. Almost immediately, he commanded the Marylanders to advance across an open field to meet an "encampment of the British Light Infantry in an orchard, where we found them formed to receive us," recalled Howard. He added, "A close and sharp action commenced." For around fifteen minutes the two groups shot at each other before "the British broke and retreated." In the thick of the action, William Beatty "survived the hottest of the fire" and miraculously was just grazed from "Dead ball on my thigh… but did no harm only made the [thigh] a little red." Also at the battle was Sergeant Gassaway Watkins, recently returned to the thick of the action after a long recovery from an illness that began in November 1776.
The commanding officer of the 4th Maryland Regiment, Colonel Josias Hall, who was on foot, sent John Eager Howard to order the Marylanders to withdraw. However, when Howard saw the situation for himself and found them "engaged from behind houses with some of the enemy," he reported back to Hall that he "judged it not proper to call them off, as it would expose our flank." Incensed, Hall demanded that Howard give him his horse, and he set off to deliver the orders himself. In his anger, the colonel failed to watch where his horse was going. It soon ran "him under a cider-press, and he was so hurt that he was taken from the field." Command of the regiment fell on the shoulders of the twenty-eight-year-old Howard. Sprinting through withering gunfire from the top windows of Cliveden, the house where the British officers had been staying, Howard led his men deeper into the British lines.[21]
[21]. Ironically, the very house that would bring death to many Patriots during the battle was the home of Howard's future bride, the beautiful Peggy Chew. Howard fell in love with Miss Chew after the war. Cliveden also hosted the young newlyweds' May 1787 dinner reception, attended by many dignitaries including George Washington. Gorgeous, charming, and animated, Mrs. Howard wielded significant sway over her husband, fondly calling him "Lord and Slave" and "good squire."
Meanwhile, other American troops pushed through the morning mist and fog and soon clashed with British Colonel Sir Thomas Musgrave's 40th Regiment of Foot, which had been deployed to cover the Redcoat retreat. Hearing a rumor that the Americans were giving no quarter, Musgrave ordered his men to barricade themselves behind the heavy wooden doors of Cliveden. The home, which was owned by Loyalist Chief Justice Benjamin Chew, had sturdy walls made of quarried schist, which provided some protection from musket fire and artillery. As the Redcoats streamed into the house, "the rebels pressed so close upon their heels, that they must inevitably have entered the house at the same time, if he had not faced regiment about and given them a fire, which checked them enough for him to have time to get his regiment into the house and shut the door." Barring the mansion's doors, British troops turned the structure into an impenetrable fortress.
Firing from every window, the British showered a fusillade of musket balls on the Continentals attempting to storm the house. Bayonets ripped into those who broke through windows and doors. The ground around the Chew House became littered with American bodies. One participant later testified that he "was wounded at Germantown through the body, the ball extracted from the side of the back bone." The British even shot and killed an American officer who approached the house with a white flag to demand their surrender. Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Musgrave, the six companies of British troops in the mansion stymied the American advance in the center of the battlefield. Darting from room to room, Musgrave inspired his men, yelling, "Hurrah to the King! Hurrah to the English."
Washington summoned a conference of officers. Most favored cordoning off the house and bypassing the strongpoint. The rotund Henry Knox, the Patriots' artillery commander, reminded the group of the military axiom about never leaving a fortified castle in the rear of an advancing army. Washington sided with Knox and pulled away three regiments from their successful advance on the British lines. Under Knox's direction, cannon pelted the house at point-blank range. After blasting Cliveden's doors, groups of Americans assaulted the house. "The Bravest [Americans] got to Doors & Windows… yet Col. Musgrave defended himself with so much Resolution & animated his People with so much Gallantry that they again fasten'd the Doors & from the Windows kept up so well a directed fire that finally the Rebels were repuls'd with great Slaughter."
One Hessian described the carnage: "Seventy-five dead Americans, some of whom lay stretched in the doorways, under the tables and chairs, and under the windows… the rooms of the house were riddled by cannonballs, and looked like a slaughter house because of the blood spattered around."
The thirty minutes that were wasted attacking the Chew House gave Howe's men precious time to regroup.
Meanwhile, Greene's divisions thrust toward Germantown. One of the units, led by Scottish-born Virginia General Adam Stephen, blundered slightly off course, perhaps drawn by the sound of gunfire at the Chew House or perhaps misled by the general, who was later convicted by a court-martial of being drunk during the battle. In the fog, Stephen's men mistook some of the soldiers from Washington's column for the enemy and began firing. Not only did the friendly fire take many Patriot lives; it caused one American division to withdraw; leaving other parts of Washington's column vulnerable to attack. As men began to run out of ammunitions, panic set in, and the overly complicated battle plan fell apart.
On the extreme left flank of the battlefield about a mile from the Chew House, Gist and Smallwood's Maryland militiamen faced off with the elite of the British army: the Loyalist Queen's Rangers and the light infantry and grenadiers of the Guards Regiment.[22] As with the other columns, poor weather hampered the militiamen's progress. "We drove the enemy, when we first made the attack, but by the thickness of the fog, the enemy got in our rear," explained one of the men. "Therefore, [we] had to change our front, and then retreated until [reaching] a proper place." Gist added, "A thick foggy air prevaild throughout the whole of this Action, as if designd by Providence to favor the British Army which with the smoak of Gunpowder prevented our discovering the situation of their line."
[22]. At that time in Philadelphia there were about three British and German battalions and seven Loyalist battalions.
Despite the poor visibility, the Marylanders at first experienced some success, driving the Redcoats and Loyalists from some of their earthen fortifications. Gist recalled, "A few Minutes after this attack began, our Division under General Smallwood Fell in with their right flank, and drove them from several redoubts." Before long, however, the militiamen's courage gave way. Seeing a group of Queen's Rangers approaching, Gist and his men mistook them for Hessian mercenaries. Alarmed, Gist ordered a small group into the cover provided by some nearby trees in order to counter the anticipated attack. Gist left to place another group on the left flank. When he returned to the woods, he "found that the whole had retreated." Even the officers were not immune to cowardice. Gist wrote that when the firing began, one of the militia colonels "was Immediately attack'd with some qualms of Sickness which obliged him to Retreat with precipitation to Maryland."
Despite the poor example, some among the militiamen fought bravely, including Captain James Cox of Baltimore.[23] On October 3, he had written to his wife to say, "We are still advancing Down toward the Enemie and Expect very soon to be foul of Each other which I hope may prove to our advantage." Unfortunately, his wife received the letter along with another, written three days later by her cousin George Welsh. "Your loving husband, and America's best friend, on the fourth instant, near Germantown, nobly defending his country's cause, having repulsed the enemy, driving them from their breastworks, received a ball through his body, by which he expired in about three quarters of an hour afterwards," wrote Welsh. General Smallwood also attested to Cox's courage, calling him a "brave and valuable officer."
[23]. Cox served in the Ancient and Honorable Mechanical Company of Baltimore, a militia company set up in 1763 to protect the city. The group lived on after the war, eventually claiming to be the oldest civic organization in the United States. The company named Baltimore's first sheriff and set up its first school and hospital, and many of the city's most famous citizens have been members.
But most of the poorly trained citizen-soldiers proved unreliable. Gist opined "The Weakness of the Human Heart prevaild," adding, "I suppose the Officer Commanding against us was acquainted by experience with this defect in Nature, who Immediately took the advantage of our Feelings and drove us from the Ground."
Unaware that his comrades on the other side of the battlefield were withdrawing, Greene continued the attack, reaching deep into the heart of the British camp. At that point, some of the men abandoned discipline and began plundering the enemy's stores. Their inattention left them open to counterattack, and every single man from the unit involved in the plundering was either killed or captured. With Cornwallis nearing the city, Greene began a retreat of his own.
Cornwallis pressed the rebels back and eventually linked up with the defenders at the Chew House. Colonel Musgrave and his men weren't finished yet. "Upon our troops appearing the 40th sallied out, and joined the pursuit," reported a British officer. Howard echoed the statement: "The enemy sallied out, one hundred or more and fired on our rear. Some of my men faced about and gave them a fire, which killed the officer in front and checked them."
The Americans retreated down the same winding country roads they had used for their approach the night before. William Beatty wrote, "Cornwallis Coming With a reinforcement & Some bad management on our side obliged us to retreat." Thomas Paine, fighting with Greene's army, marveled at the men's composure. He told Benjamin Franklin, "They appeared to me to be only sensible of a disappointment, not a defeat; and to be more displeased at their retreating from Germantown, than anxious to get to their rendezvous…. The retreat was as extraordinary. Nobody hurried themselves. Every one marched his own pace. The enemy kept a civil distance behind, sending every now and then a shot after us, and receiving the same from us."
Always leading from the front, Cornwallis urged his men to join the pursuit of the Americans, but the same weather conditions that had plagued the Patriots stymied them. One British officer recalled, "The British Grenadiers from the City of Philadelphia, who full of Ardour had run the whole way came up to join the pursuit, but the Fog which did not clear up 'till after the Enemy had begun to move off."
In all, 150 Americans died in the battle of Germantown, 520 were wounded, and 400 were captured. On the other side, the British lost seventy men, with 450 wounded and fifteen taken prisoner. "It was a bloody day," wrote Washington. "Would to heaven that I could add that it had been a more fortunate one for us." The Marylanders had also taken significant losses, including some among the officers; Colonel Stone and several other officers were wounded. The Americans lost many men and a chance to recapture a strategic city, but the fact that they nearly won a major battle resounded on the other side of the Atlantic, where the French were considering an alliance with the Patriots. An alliance with the French could prove to be decisive. Funding the Revolution was a huge challenge, and the American treasury was continually exhausted. Men weren't being paid or properly equipped with shoes, uniforms, and other basic supplies, and food was a frequent problem. Congress was looking to France for loans in hard currency to back up the paper money it was printing. Seasoned, drilled French troops would also be a welcome addition to the American forces, and the presence of French naval power could crimp the mobility, reinforcement, and supply of the British army.
It would also have an important indirect impact-turning the American Revolution into a global war that would force Britain to protect its far-flung empire, including possessions in India and the Caribbean. If that happened, the Crown would no longer be able to concentrate forces in North America and would have to disperse troops to its other outposts. Other nations would likely join the conflict, futher expanding the war. There was even a threat of invasion in England itself, which forced the country to keep a defensive force at home.
Weighing the possible risks of joining the Revolution, the French foreign minister said "nothing struck him so much" as the battle at Germantown.
Chapter 19
Mud Island
South of Philadelphia near the present-day Philadelphia International Airport, a muddy expanse of marshland four hundred yards long and two hundred yards across at the widest point sits at the mouth of the Schuylkill where it meets the Delaware. In the 1700s, residents referred to the soggy wetlands as Mud Island. Atop the tiny island zigzagging ramparts made of cut stone and timber stretched the length of three football fields, amid fieldworks bristling with Patriot artillery pieces. Known as Fort Mifflin, the fortification boasted a maze of embankments and dikes, along with hundreds of wolf holes, shallow pits filled with sharpened spikes designed to gore any assault force.
During the fall of 1777, the Patriot fort became the site of one of the Revolution's longest sieges and greatest bombardments. It was of vital strategic importance. The British fleet needed to control the fort so it could resupply Philadelphia, and this need had a direct impact on General William Howe's plans to launch offensive operations against Washington's army. Royal Navy convoys attempting to reach Philadelphia would have to pass by the fort's guns and over the chevaux-de-frise. The chevaux-de-frise were a massive group of thirty-foot boxes constructed of huge timbers, lowered into the riverbed of the Delaware, filled with twenty to forty tons of stone to keep them in place, and topped with jagged iron-pointed spikes. The boxes were chained togther into a formidable barrier that could rip out the hull of any ship trying to cross.[24]
[24]. Part of the chevaux-de-frise, still in fine condition, was recovered from the Delaware River in 2007.
Washington ordered his men "to defend [Fort Mifflin] to their last extremity" and placed twenty-five-year-old Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Smith in charge of the facility, telling him, "The keeping of this fort is of very great importance, and I rely on your prudence, spirit and bravery for a vigorous and persevering defense." Smith commanded a detachment of approximately two hundred Marylanders, along with several hundred men from Virginia and Rhode Island. Rounding out the mix were Continentals from the 4th Connecticut Regiment, including seventeen-year-old combat veteran Private Joseph Plumb Martin, who described the island as "nothing more than a mud flat in the Delaware, lying upon the west side of the channel. It is diked around the fort, with sluices so constructed that the fort can be laid under water at pleasure…. On the eastern side, next the main river, was a zigzag wall built of hewn stone." One of the Hessians who was given the task of taking the fortification wrote, "The island, because of its swampy shore was unapproachable, and with double ditch and palisades, wolf holes, and stone walls would have cost many men if it had to be taken by assault."
Ironically, the man who had designed the fort was now in charge of destroying it. Howe's chief engineer, Captain John Montresor, a veteran of the French and Indian War who spent twenty years in the British army, had overseen Fort Mifflin's construction. Construction on the fort began in 1771. Montresor's grandiose plan would have cost forty thousand pounds, an enormous sum for the day, but the colonial General Assembly had allocated only fifteen thousand pounds for the construction of the fort. Less than a year after the initial work began, the project floundered. The fort remained partially constructed until 1776, when Benjamin Franklin and the Philadelphia Committee of Public Safety restarted construction on both Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer, which was on the eastern shore of the Delaware.
The Patriots also had an engineer on their side. Washington assigned a twenty-eight-year-old French nobleman, Major François-Louis Teis色dre de Fleury, to aid Smith. De Fleury had studied engineering and served with the French army in Corsica. The general had a high regard for de Fleury, saying, "He is a Young Man of Talents and has made this branch of military Science his particular Study. I place a confidence in him." Smith and his engineer enjoyed a "perfectly good understanding and sincere friendship…. No jealousy, no underhanded practices-all was frank and conducive to the public service." Others described de Fleury as an excellent soldier and leader who could bring men and nations together.
Smith didn't get along nearly as well with his counterpart in the nascent Pennsylvania navy, Commander John Hazelwood. Hazelwood commanded a flotilla of "sinister black painted" galleys and floating platforms in the Delaware, a "mosquito navy." At the time, cannons were designated by the weight of the projectiles they could shoot, so a six-pounder, for example, shot six-pound balls. Some of the heavily armed British ships carried a thirty-two-pounder at the stern, four twenty-four-pounders, eight eighteen-pounders, and a crew of fighting sailors, several of whom were said to be Tory rowers pressed into service.
Taking Fort Mifflin posed a serious challenge to the British. Since the beginning of October, Montresor had carefully flanked the fort and constructed artillery positions to bombard it, including some on nearby Carpenter's Island. Pointing out the threat the island posed if the British constructed a battery there, Hazelwood shrugged off Smith's concerns: "A mosquito couldn't live there under my guns." When that's exactly what Montresor did, an alarmed Smith asked Hazelwood, with his fleet of vessels, to intercept British reinforcements heading to the island. Hazelwood acidly responded, "A shell would sink any of my galleys." Smith fired back a biting riposte: "Yes, and falling on your head or mine, will kill; but for what else are we employed or paid."
On October 10 Smith took matters into his own hands by leading a raiding party of about sixty men in the dead of night. He and his troops rowed over from Mud Island and crept behind the British guns. Using a tree line for concealment and protection, Smith's men started firing on the unsuspecting gun crews who soon put a white handkerchief on a ramrod and surrendered. However, several British officers refused to capitulate. In response, Smith "fired two shot on them & ceased on being told they would surrender, however they refused to deliver up the piece of Artillery." Eventually, under the barrel of a gun, the officers surrendered, and Smith took them prisoner. The raiders then spiked the British artillery, rendering it inoperable.
After the raid, Smith received an unexpected visitor: Jack Steward. Smith's friend, who had been captured by the British after the abortive Staten Island raid, escaped by quietly lowering himself into a small boat and rowing to New Jersey. While Steward had been imprisoned on a British hell ship in New York Harbor, Smith attempted to send money to the man with whom he had once fought a duel: he gave twenty-five pounds to a British officer who agreed to pass it to Steward. The officer "conveyed it to a Major Stuart" but not the Steward Smith intended, or so the story goes. It is possible Steward used the money to bribe his way off the prison ship; in any case, Smith was overjoyed to see his old friend and the supplies he brought to the fort.
The British continued to flank the fort, and from other positions, they shelled Mud Island. The shelling began to take a toll. On October 20 Smith wrote to Washington, "Yesterday a red hot ball entered our Laboratory, where were several boxes of ammunition… which blew up the barracks. Had it not been for the activity of Capt. Wells of the 4th Virginia and Capt. Luct, in putting out the fire, would have done much more damage." The Patriots, of course, were firing their own artillery back at the enemy. British Captain Lieutenant Francis Downman noted, "The rebels opened all their batteries and blockhouses upon us; their grape shot came so thick that we could not stand to our guns."
Another British soldier recalled what was perhaps one of the luckiest shots of the Revolution. From a range of five hundred yards, "they fired a 12-pound ball directly into the barrel of our 24-pounders, without damaging our cannon because it went in so accurately."
On October 23, nearly two weeks into the siege, the British fleet moved in to attack Fort Mifflin. The HMS Augusta, a man-of-war that carried sixty-four guns, and the Merlin, a twenty-gun sloop, closed in on the American position. Despite the superior firepower of the enemy, the Patriots manned their posts, landing direct hits on both vessels before they ran aground. Most of the crew members from the Augusta perished; those on the Merlin abandoned ship before they could meet a similar fate. By midday magazines on board the Augusta detonated, and the tremendous explosion broke windows in nearby Philadelphia. The resolute defense of Fort Mifflin bought Washington more time, but the siege was far from over.
Although the waterborne assault had failed, the British still had plenty of land-based artillery, as well as a floating battery. Their guns were soon hurling around fifteen hundred shots per day at the fortifications, and many of these shots found their mark. The action grew bloody on both sides. "Our men were cut up like cornstalks," recalled American Private Joseph Plumb Martin. "I saw five artillerists belonging to one gun cut down by a single shot, and I saw men who were stooping to be protected by the works but not stooping low enough, split like fish to be broiled."
Peter Francisco, a six-foot-eight seventeen-year-old also known as the "Giant of the Revolution," also played a part in defending Mud Island. A sea captain abandoned Francisco, who was born in the Azores, on the docks of City Point, Virginia, when he was only five years old. Locals took in the young boy, who spoke only Portuguese. They tutored him, and he later apprenticed to become a blacksmith, a profession chosen for him because of his massive size. He joined a Virginia regiment in 1777 and fought at Germantown and Brandywine before finding himself with the Marylanders in Fort Mifflin. He fought alongside them in multiple battles throughout the war.
According to eyewitnesses, Smith remained staunch throughout the cannonades. At one point he saw an aide ducking and asked, "What are you dodging for, sir? The King of Prussia had 30 aides de camp killed in one day!"
The aide replied, "Yes sir, but Colonel Smith hasn't got so many to lose!"
On October 26 an intense storm pounded the fort, turning the Schuylkill into a raging torrent and flooding the island under two feet of water. The misery continued as British Artillery pulverized the works. De Fleury assigned the men to rebuild the ramparts despite the weather. "[De Fleury] was a very austere man and kept us constantly employed day and night," recalled one of the men. "He always had a cane in his hand, and woe betided him he could get a stroke at." To avoid de Fleury, the soldiers hid in a ditch on the eastern side of the fort, where they built small fires to stay warm. "We would watch an opportunity to escape from the vigilance of Fleury, and run into this place for a minute or two's respite from fatigue and cold. When the engineer found that the workmen began to grow scarce, he would come to the entrance and call us out."
As the siege wore on, the supply situation grew worse. Nathanael Greene informed Washington, "The enemy are greatly discouraged by the fort holding so long and it is the general opinion of the best citizens that the enemy will evacuate the city if the fort holds out until the middle of next week." That was an exaggeration, but the British were growing frustrated. Hessian Captain Friedrich von Münchhausen, whose forces were arrayed on the other side of the river, summed up the situation beautifully: "I wish we would finally capture this cursed fort."
November 11, 1777, marked the beginning of the end for the Patriots in Fort Mifflin. Smith later explained, "I imprudently went into my Barracks to answer a letter from Gen. Varnum & a Ball come through the Chimney." The injured officer "rolled over and over, until he got to the front door." After a doctor saw to his injuries, he was evacuated from the island. It was Smith's last battle of the Revolution, and he spent most of his time recovering from his wounds in Baltimore. Attempting to fill his shoes, de Fleury rallied the men to continue repairing the daily damage done by the British bombardment. The day after Smith left, de Fleury wrote to Washington that "some of our palisade at the north side are broken, but we can mend them every night." However, he added, "the garrison is so dispirited that if the enemy, will attempt to storm us, I am afraid they will succeed." He continued, "They are so exhausted, by watch, cold, Rain & fatigue, that their Courage is very low, and in the Last allarme on half was unfit for duty."
Still, the men continued to hold the fort. On November 14, the forty-eighth day of the siege, General Greene wrote to Washington, who was several miles away with the main army, "The flag was flying at Fort Mifflin at sunset this evening." Despite the approach of winter, the British were preparing for a major assault, without ever letting up on their daily artillery barrage. In his message, Greene added that the cannon fire had been "very severe" during the day and that the British navy was "attempting to get up a two-and-thirty-gun frigate into firing range." To make the ship lighter and thus able to get farther upriver, the sailors removed the guns and placed them in a following sloop. However, luckily for the Americans, the wind and tide prevented the ship from approaching.
During the Americans' stout defense of Fort Mifflin, they received welcome news of a great victory at Saratoga. In the summer of 1777, the British had put a bold plan into motion. British strategists believed that the southern colonies were mostly loyal to the Crown and that the northern colonies were the seat of the rebellion. They thought they could stamp out the Revolution by sending down General John Burgoyne, a veteran of the Seven Years' War and an accomplished playwright who was currently in Montreal. Burgoyne and his seven thousand troops were to march south to seize Fort Ticonderoga in northern New York and eventually meet up with two other British forces near Albany, thus severing the northern colonies from their southern brethren.
Although Burgoyne captured Ticonderoga easily enough, he found further progress difficult. The area near the fort was filled with swamps and forests, and the Americans took every opportunity to slow down the Redcoats. The Patriots destroyed bridges, left fallen trees on the roads, and otherwise sabotaged Burgoyne's force as well as they could. At the same time, the Americans went on a recruiting spree, calling up thousands of militiamen to join Major General Horatio Gates near Saratoga, New York. As a retired British soldier, Gates was well acquainted with the Cornwallis family. In fact, Charles Cornwallis's uncle Edward was one of Gates's early mentors. Gates had also served with Washington in the French and Indian War. Frustrated with the British army and lacking the money necessary to advance his career, he sold his commission as a major and bought a plantation in Virginia. He volunteered to serve in the Patriot army as soon as war broke out.
By the time Burgoyne made it to Saratoga in September, Gates had amassed a force of more than seven thousand men. The British general attacked and won a tactical victory because he remained in possession of the battlefield, but he suffered heavy casualties. Exhausted, Burgoyne chose to dig in and wait to link up with Howe-a union that would never occur. On October 7, 1777, at the Battle of Bemis Heights, the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses. Inspired by the victory, more militia streamed into Gates's camp, swelling his force to nearly twenty thousand in positions surrounding much of the British army. Burgoyne attempted a fighting retreat north, but the British situation was hopeless. "Gentleman Johnny," as Burgoyne was known, retreated to Schuylerville, the site of the first Battle of Saratoga. In a wine cellar, he met with his officers for a council of war. Baroness von Riedesel, who accompanied her husband, one of Burgoyne's principal battle commanders, recalled that Burgoyne spent the night singing and getting drunk while "amusing himself in the company of the wife of his commissary," his mistress. Above the merriment, the sounds of war still reverberated in the dank cellar. A British officer whose arm had been blown off by a cannonball wailed, and his shrieks "doubly gruesome… re-echoed in the cellar."
After several rounds of negotiation, Burgoyne and his men agreed to an armistice of sorts. In order to allow the British to save face, the document was called "The Convention of Saratoga," rather than a surrender or a treaty. Under the terms of the agreement, Burgoyne and his men would lay down their arms and would no longer fight against the Revolution. In return, the Americans agreed to allow them to return to England.
As the Americans played "Yankee Doodle," Burgoyne formally surrendered on October 17. Defiant to the end, many of the king's soliders broke their musket stocks in two as a final sign of resistance. But the cocksure Brits weren't headed home. Congress reneged on the terms of the surrender. Instead of going to England, Burgoyne's defeated army of more than six thousand troops headed south into captivity.[25]
[25]. Howe secretly planned on sending the Hessians to Britain and retaining his British troops in America. Ironically, the march south and captivity were so poorly administered by the Americans that many of Burgoyne's troops escaped imprisonment and rejoined the British army.
Saratoga changed everything. For the Americans, the victory gave them the hope of ultimately defeating the British. More important, it also convinced the French that the revolutionaries had a chance to succeed. Playing to French stereotypes of Americans by donning a fur cap (while living in a mansion with a cellar stocked with a thousand bottles of French wine), Benjamin Franklin had been meeting with French officials. Eventually, he convinced them to ally with the American cause. Several months after the decisive victory at Saratoga, France signed two separate treaties with the United States: one that gave French goods most-favored-nation status in America and one spelling out the terms of a military alliance between the two countries. Each country agreed not to sue for peace with Britain without the consent of the other. The French also agreed not to seize any British territory in North America or Bermuda except any islands in or near the Gulf of Mexico that they might choose to attack. Initially, the treaty was defensive and allowed France to go to war at its choosing. But England declared war on France first a few days after the treaty was signed.
The alliance gave the Americans three things they desperately needed if they were to have a hope of winning their war: loans, troops, and naval support. From the British perspective, the French alliance transformed the Revolution from an attempt to suppress a colonial uprising into a global war. The British needed to defend not only the thirteen colonies, but Canada, the West Indies, and possibly even the British homeland itself from their French archrivals. Almost immediately, British troops began to leave North America to defend the rest of the Empire from France's military might.
When word of the treaties reached Washington, he was overjoyed. Although Washington preferred not to be touched, his friend Lafayette immediately embraced the general and kissed him on both cheeks in the usual French fashion. Washington wrote to Congress, "I believe no event was ever received with more heartfelt joy." And the army held a day of celebration in honor of the treaty.
Inevitably, the British did finally overcome the natural and artificial barriers that held them back and brought their vessels within firing range of Fort Mifflin on November 15. One Patriot soldier recalled, "This morning about 8 oClock the Enemy made a furious attack, by the River & land-the Ships came as near to the Fort as posable [possible] in the Main Channel." A fierce artillery battle ensued. The Marylanders and other Continentals on the island put up a valiant fight but were ultimately outgunned. "Mud Island was shot to pieces by the British ships," said one of the Hessian officers. "There was a ferocious cannonade, all their mounted batteries, cannons of the largest caliber, were not only dismounted, but buried in the rubble." He added, "Blood, brains, arms, legs, everything lay about." Several of the officers were killed, and several were wounded, including the intrepid de Fleury, who had been knocked out by a falling timber.
Around midmorning, the Americans decided to signal that they needed assistance. An artillery sergeant lowered the fort's flag, intending to raise a signal flag in its place. As the colors drew closer to the ground, the British cannon stopped firing and the troops began to cheer, believing that the Americans intended to surrender. But the Patriot officers weren't ready to capitulate yet. "Up with the flag!" they all shouted. The sergeant obeyed, returning the flag to the top of the mast that served as a pole. The firing resumed on both sides, and as the sergeant stepped away, "he was cut in two by a cannon shot." By this time, "the fort exhibited a picture of desolation," wrote Martin. "The whole area of the fort was as completely ploughed as a field. The buildings of every kind hanging in broken fragments…. If ever destruction was complete, it was here."
Faced with the unrelenting loss of life and a fort disintegrating around them, the Patriots chose to evacuate. On the morning of November 16, under the cover of darkness, they rowed off Mud Island. Upon their departure, they left two items of note. First, as a final act of defiance, they did not lower their colors. "We left our flag flying when we left the island," recalled Martin. Second, a rebel soldier who had previously deserted from the German mercenaries supporting the British stayed behind. Münchhausen believed he "hid himself in order to desert to our lines." However, Martin attributed his staying to "having taken too large a dose of 'the good creature [alcohol].'" He added, "The British took him to Philadelphia, where, not being known by them, he engaged again in their service, received two or three guineas bounty, [and] drew a British uniform." But the two-time "deserter" didn't stay in British service. Once the Redcoats provided him with clothing and a little money, he deserted again and made his way to the Patriot camp at Valley Forge.
As the British took possession of the fort, a grisly scene awaited them. One of the Redcoat officers reported, "Colonel Osborn took possession of the island the following morning and found nothing but a charred camp and bloodstains." The Patriots had torched all of their buildings before departing, leaving only the commandant's house standing-and it was little more than a ruin. "The house of the commandant has so many holes that more than one thousand can be counted, and the floors are as blown up as when a herd of swine had been there."
The British "hauled down the Rebel Flag and hoisted an English Jack." They then immediately set to work repairing the damage that their six-week barrage had done. A light, "trifling snow" fell as they worked, just a taste of the cold winter ahead.
Chapter 20
Valley Forge
and Wilmington
In a scene repeated by thousands of men that winter, Joseph Plumb Martin winced as he placed his foot on the hard, frozen ruts of the dirt path he was following. Mile after mile, the stiff cowhide of his makeshift moccasins slowly ground through the skin on his ankles until every step was torture. Martin had made the rough shoes himself a few days earlier when his original pair fell apart on the trek to Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Every morning, his feet and ankles hurt so much from the previous day that he could barely stand to put the moccasins back on. Yet he did so-and bore the pain of each excruciating step-because the other option was much worse. "The only alternative I had," wrote Martin, "was to endure this inconvenience or to go barefoot, as hundreds of my companions had to, till they might be tracked by their blood upon the rough frozen ground."
While the shoes lasted, they protected Martin's feet from the icy ground, but eventually, his ersatz footwear wore out. With no supplies for making new ones, Martin joined the rest of the Continental Army, which he described as "not only starved but naked." He added, "The greatest part were not only shirtless and barefoot, but destitute of all other clothing, especially blankets." Yet like the rest of the army, Martin continued marching, even when he began leaving bloody footprints behind him in the snow.
The torturous trek to Valley Forge marked the end of a long winding down. Since the capture of Mud Island on November 15, 1777, both armies had boldly remained largely inactive. During the period, some skirmishing took place, including the defense of Edge Hill (also known as the Battle of White Marsh), in which the Maryland militia won praise from George Washington, but British commander Willliam Howe seemed content to go into winter quarters rather than go on the offensive.
Unfortunately, when Washington's army arrived at its winter camp in Valley Forge, the problems that plagued it on the march only grew worse. The bitter cold, combined with the lack of supplies, caused innumerable cases of frostbite, hunger, and disease. Typhus, pneumonia, dysentery, and scurvy swept through the American camps, with as much as 30 percent of the army afflicted with one illness or another at any one time. The surgeons kept busy amputating limbs that had turned black from cold. The food was incredibly meager, often consisting of nothing more than "fire cakes," flour and water heated on hot stones. One physician with the army summed it up this way:
Poor food-hard lodging-cold weather-fatigue-nasty clothes-nasty cookery-vomit half my time-smoke out of my senses-the devil's in it-I can't endure it…. There comes a bowl of beef soup-full of burnt leaves and dirt, sickish enough to make a Hector spew…. There comes a soldier, his bare feet are seen through his worn-out shoes, his legs nearly naked from the tattered remains of an only pair of stockings; his breeches not sufficient to cover his nakedness; his shirt hanging in strings; his hair disheveled; his face meager; his whole appearance pictures a person forsaken and discouraged.
Disgusted by the heart-wrenching, miserable conditions his troops endured, Washington did everything in his power to provide for his men. He pressed Congress to name Nathanael Greene as quartermaster general, and fired off numerous letters begging for food and clothing. In one, he predicted that "three or four days bad weather would prove our destruction," and explained that men had no soap, no shoes, very little clothing. Many couldn't even sleep because, as they had no blankets, they were forced to crouch near the fire at night. The general also expressed tremendous admiration for the men who were willing to undergo such deprivations. "Naked and starving as they are," he wrote, "we cannot enough admire the incomparable patience and fidelity of the soldiery."
Marylander John Boudy, who, unlike most of the men from his state, was briefly at Valley Forge, recalled, "Our army suffered excessively being destitute of clothing and provisions-so difficult were provisions to be procured, that they had to be collected by force." He added that he was sometimes part of foraging parties, which had "to make excursions forty and fifty miles and sometimes further, to collect provisions."
By the end of the terrible winter, nearly two thousand American soldiers perished.
Many of the Marylanders escaped the tragic fate of those at Valley Forge. Washington sent John Eager Howard and the bulk of the Maryland troops to Wilmington, Delaware. Wintering in town was far less difficult than wintering in the valley. William Smallwood and Mordecai Gist stayed in the Foulke house, where sixteen-year-old Sally Wister lived. She confided in her diary that she liked the looks of then twenty-nine-year-old Gist. She described him as "a smart widower," adding, "He's very pretty; a charming person." To a friend, she described his eyes as "exceptional; very stern; and he so rolls them about that mine always fall under them" and concluded, "He bears the character of a brave officer." For his part, Gist seemed more interested in a Miss Fostinam, writing to a friend that he wished to dance a minuet with her at the local tavern, but "I have been unhappily disappointed in my design." Despite being unlucky in love, Gist wrote to another friend, "I have the pleasure to Inform You that I share with the rest of my Brother soldiers, a tollerable state of Health…. my Spirits neither depressed nor elevated…. My time glides smoothly on, and each revolving Sun Shines out to make me happier in the defence of Virtue and my Country than the Haughty Tyrant that sits upon his Throne but to Enslave his subjects."
Gist did not agree with Washington's choice of Valley Forge as winter quarters, writing that it allowed the enemy to forage and harass the Continental Army at will and subjected the men to damp huts and disease. Ultimately, Gist did not have to endure the same suffering as most of his men during that bitter winter; he returned to Baltimore to recruit new men for the Maryland regiments. In Baltimore he quickly wed Mary Sterrett, sister to Lieutenant William Sterrett, an officer in the Maryland Line who was one of Gist's close friends. Apparently, Gist succumbed to love and romance, even though months earlier he had warned Jack Steward, "The enchanting pleasures of Venus can never stand in the competion with gods like Mars when the Soldier has Virtue enough to remember his Country."
The monotony and boredom of quarters in Wilmington brought their own set of challenges. The soldiers spent a great deal of time waiting, with little to do. Tempers began to fray, and fights broke out among the troops. Although normally coolheaded, John Eager Howard was involved in an altercation that resulted in a court-martial. He was charged "1st with wounding Capt. Lieut. Duffy with his Sward; 2d Abetting a riot in Camp; and 3d in front of his Men at his request assembled attempting the life of Capt. with a loaded firelock and fixed Bayonet being utterly subversive of Good Order and Discipline." The court acquitted Howard on the first and third charges. On the second, it ruled that "however Justifiable the Motives were by which Major Howard was first actuated his Conduct in that End was such as tended rather to promote than suppress a riot." Howard received a reprimand, as did Duffy, who was also found guilty of abetting a riot. After the incident, Howard reverted to his typical calm manner, but Duffy continued to be a problem. Years later, the army discharged him for "Scandalous and Infamous behavior unbecoming the Character of an officer… Being drunk; Rioting in the street; Abusing a French soldier; And acting in a seditious and disorderly manner."
One source of solace for the officers of the Maryland Line during the long winter was the unshakable Margaret Jane Ramsay. Her husband, Nathaniel, had been recently promoted to the rank of colonel, and the couple maintained a log hut in Valley Forge with some of the other Maryland officers (even though the bulk of the Marylanders wintered in Wilmington). Mrs. Ramsay played the role of hostess and entertained with refreshments such as coffee. Her brother remarked, "Maryland officers in the camp spent many agreeable hours sometimes accompanied by officers in other corps." The bonds of friendship forged in battle were strengthened during these times of shared sacrifice.
While the winter seems to have passed pleasurably for many of the officers, the Marylanders still faced their share of hardships. Beatty wrote that they "fared very well as to the quarters but the duty Was very hard & the troops Very bare of Clothing" until a British vessel shipwrecked nearby and the men captured "a valuable Prize of cloathing."
Petty disputes broke out, and Smallwood became "very unpopular, owing to his Stateliness and excessive Slowness of Motion." Smallwood didn't make any friends among the officers by announcing that they could speak with him only between three and six in the afternoon. "A pretty Condition he would be in, were the enemy to attack him in the morning," observed one of the men.
Disease also took a toll, and the Maryland ranks declined precipitously. The Marylanders didn't meet again with Washington until June 1778, and by that time only 269 of the 455 men in the 4th Maryland Regiment were fit for duty. During these trying times, desertion became a problem for the Maryland Line. During the winter, William Chaplin, who barely survived the Battle of Brooklyn, deserted to the British along with over a dozen of his fellow soldiers. A British newspaper reported the incident: "[Chaplin] and sixteen others deserted from Wilmington, and came in to Gen. Howe, at Philadelphia, where they took the oath of allegiance, were treated with great humanity by the British officers, and, at their own request, suffered to leave America." Chaplin and his fellow Marylanders left for England and were never heard from again.
For the troops in Valley Forge, endless drills under the direction of Baron Friedrich von Steuben occupied much of the long winter. The Prussian nobleman and officer entered Washington's service on the recommendation of Benjamin Franklin, who met von Steuben in France and mistakenly believed him to be a "Lieutenant General in the King of Prussia's service." In reality, he had been discharged from the Prussian army as a captain in 1763, and at the time he met Franklin, he was serving as grand marshal to Josef Friedrich Wilhelm, prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in southern Germany. Volunteering to work without pay, the baron overhauled the Americans' training practices, setting up a model company of 120 soldiers that could then train other men. He imposed a strict camp layout and new sanitation standards that helped improve the health of the soldiers. According to legend, because he spoke little English, von Steuben relied on a translator to chew out the men, frequently yelling, "Over here! Swear at him for me!" when his insults in French and German failed to achieve the desired results. A dog lover, the colorful Prussian had an Italian greyhound name Azor who went everywhere his master did. Steuben collected his training advice in the Revolutionary War Drill Manual, which the Americans used through the War of 1812.
To serve a similar role in Wilmington, Washington sent one of von Steuben's assistants, Marquis François-Louis Teis色dre de Fleury, who had staunchly defended Fort Mifflin with the Marylanders. The training and the cold weather took a toll on the men, in terms of both their health and their morale, but through the baron's drill and training, the Marylanders and the American army were evolving and becoming a potent fighting force.
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