The air-raid warning was a false alarm; when the all-clear sounded Churchill went to the House of Commons. On reaching his seat he was handed a note from Chamberlain asking him to come to see him when the debate was over. Chamberlain then spoke, followed by Arthur Greenwood for the Labour Party. Such was Churchill's stature that, although out of office for more than ten years, he was asked to speak next. 'This is not a question of fighting for Danzig or fighting for Poland,' he said. 'We are fighting to save the whole world from the pestilence of Nazi tyranny and in defence of all that is most sacred to man. This is no war of domination or imperial aggrandisement or material gain; no war to shut any country out of its sunlight and means of progress. It is a war, viewed in its inherent quality, to establish, on impregnable rocks, the rights of the individual, and it is a war to establish and revive the stature of man.'
In his diary that day Amery wrote, 'I think I see Winston emerging as PM out of it all by the end of the year.' Churchill as yet held no Cabinet position. After the debate he went to Chamberlain's room, where Chamberlain offered him the post he had held from 1911 to 1915, First Lord of the Admiralty, together with a place in the War Cabinet. He accepted, then sent a message to the Admiralty that he would arrive later that afternoon to take up his duties. The Board of Admiralty signalled at once to all ships, 'Winston is back.'
Churchill attended the War Cabinet at five that afternoon. Then he went to Admiralty House with Kathleen Hill, who later recalled how he entered the First Lord's Room and went up to a cupboard in the panelling. 'I held my breath. He flung the door open with a dramatic gesture-there behind the panelling was a large map showing the disposition of all German ships on the day he had left the Admiralty in 1915.' That evening Churchill met his Board. 'He surveyed critically each one of us in turn,' one of them later recalled, 'and then, adding that he would see us personally later on, he adjourned the meeting. "Gentlemen," he said, "to your tasks and duties".' Churchill later wrote, of his first encounter with the First Sea Lord, Sir Dudley Pound, 'We eyed each other doubtfully. But from the earliest days our friendship and mutual confidence ripened.'
Within two weeks of the outbreak of war, Churchill received a letter from Colin Thornton-Kemsley, who six months earlier had tried to remove him from his constituency. 'You warned us repeatedly about the German danger & you were right,' Thornton-Kemsley wrote from his Army camp. 'A grasshopper under a fern is not proud now that he made the field ring with his importunate chink. Please don't think of replying-you are in all conscience busy enough in an office we are all glad you hold in this time of Britain's danger.'
Churchill did reply, telling his former opponent, 'I certainly think that Englishmen ought to start fair with one another from the outset in so grievous a struggle, and as far as I am concerned the past is dead.'
***
At the War Cabinet on the morning of September 4, hoping to relieve some of the enormous German military pressure on the Polish front, Churchill proposed a joint attack by the French Army and the British Air Force on the Siegfried Line, forcing the Germans to defend their western front. No such action was taken. But this was to be Churchill's constant purpose: to seek every possible area of action, to speed up every measure; not to be content with routine or delay. Each day, he dictated a dozen or more notes to his subordinates with suggestions for action, or with queries. On the night of September 4 he told his advisers, 'The First Lord submits these notes to his naval colleagues for consideration, for criticism and correction, and hopes to receive proposals for action in the sense desired.' When the matter was urgent, Churchill would glue to his minute a bright red label on which were printed the three words, 'ACTION THIS DAY'.
At sea, German submarines had begun the systematic sinking of British merchant ships. One proposal Churchill made that week, to which he attached 'the highest importance', was that the Admiralty news bulletin 'should maintain its reputation for truthfulness'. His responsibilities quickly went beyond the war at sea. On September 6 Chamberlain appointed him to a War Cabinet Committee to determine the size of Britain's land forces and the rate at which their equipment should be completed, a decision repeatedly delayed and postponed by the pre-war Government. 'We must take our place in the Line,' Churchill told his Committee on September 8, 'if we are to hold the Alliance together and win the war.' His aim was to have twenty British divisions ready for fighting alongside the French by March 1940, and fifty-five divisions equipped and ready for action by the end of 1941. But the accelerated pace Churchill proposed for preparing new Army divisions was opposed by the Air Ministry on the grounds that it might adversely affect the pace of aircraft production; the mobilisation of the factories which Churchill had urged repeatedly in his wilderness years had been too tardy to enable Britain's war needs to be met when most needed.
Churchill continued to press for the building of shadow factories which, if not set up in advance, could not suddenly be created when the need became urgent. To Kingsley Wood, who did not believe that a fifty-five-division Army could be created within two years without detriment to the Air Force, Churchill wrote on September 9, 'Pardon me if I put my experience and knowledge, which were bought not taught, at your disposal.' Churchill now knew the worst as regards the effect of pre-war shortages and delays, but his outward mood was one of confidence. Learning that the British Ambassador to Rome, Sir Percy Loraine, had spoken of a possible negotiated peace once Poland was defeated, Churchill minuted, 'Loraine does not seem to understand our resolve. Surely he could be rallied to a more robust mood.'
On September 9, in strictest secrecy, the first troops of the British Expeditionary Force sailed to France without loss. Churchill, whose warships escorted them, thus repeated one of his proudest achievements of August 1914. Twice in twenty-five years he had been responsible for the safe passage of a British Army to France.
That day, to help him study the mass of technical material that was reaching him each day, and to pursue research and development of new scientific ideas, Churchill appointed Lindemann 'Personal Adviser to the First Lord in Scientific Matters'. A month later he made him head of a special Statistical Department in his Private Office, with instructions to provide 'a weekly picture of the progress of all new construction, showing delays from contract dates'. Lindemann and the team that worked under him also provided weekly reports on ammunition, torpedo and oil deliveries, and production. Within a short time, Lindemann's charts had become a feature of the conduct of Admiralty business, scrutinised by Churchill each morning to find any area of weakness, or potential danger, and to act upon it.
As in August 1914, Churchill's first offensive plan was for a British naval incursion into the Baltic; he now proposed a naval expedition led by two 15-inch-gun battleships, to threaten the German Baltic coast. He put this idea to his advisers on September 12, with March 1940 as its envisaged starting date. 'I commend these ideas to your study,' he wrote, 'hoping that the intention will be to solve the difficulties.' Two days later he pressed the War Cabinet to make full use of the offensive power of the Air Force by attacking those German synthetic-oil plants which were 'isolated from the civilian population'. But in reply, Kingsley Wood spoke of the need to keep Britain's 'small and inferior Air Force' untouched until Britain's own existence was threatened; the position would be 'immeasurably better' by March 1940, he said.
On September 15 Churchill was able to tell Chamberlain of the discovery of 'the mass of wartime artillery which I stored in 1919'. The guns and ammunition which, as Minister of Munitions, he had sent into storage then, would now constitute 'the heavy artillery, not of our small Expeditionary Force, but of a great army.' That night Churchill left London by train for the naval base at Scapa Flow, where he learned once again of the slow pace of pre-war preparations; the defences of Scapa would not be completed until the spring of 1940. He also learned that the Navy did not have sufficient destroyers to provide even a single destroyer-escort for each battleship.
Worried by the ability of the Germans to move their essential iron-ore supplies from the mines in Sweden by rail to the Norwegian port of Narvik, and then southward by ship through Norwegian territorial waters to Germany, on September 19 Churchill suggested to the War Cabinet that the Navy lay mines inside Norwegian waters, forcing the iron-ore ships out into the open sea where they could be sunk. No decision was reached, but, in a discussion on a possible British air offensive against Germany, Samuel Hoare told his colleagues: 'A considerable time would elapse under our present programme before we even achieved parity with the Germans.' Five years earlier, Hoare was among those who had most belittled Churchill's judgment when he warned that Britain was losing air parity with Germany.
In the East, Russia now activated her August pact with Germany, advancing rapidly into Poland and cutting off any chance of continued Polish resistance from the eastern provinces. Trapped between a superior German military machine and the Russian advance, the Poles had no choice but to contemplate defeat and partition. With Russia and Germany actively allied, Churchill abandoned his plan to send a British Fleet into the Baltic. 'But,' he told Pound, 'the search for a naval offensive must be incessant.'
On September 26 Churchill spoke in the Commons, giving a short survey of the war at sea. The convoy system was already in place, he said, but one had to remember that 'war is full of unpleasant surprises'. His theme was that of his Mansion House speech in October 1914, 'We have only to persevere to conquer.' After the speech, Harold Nicolson wrote in his diary: 'In those 20 minutes Churchill brought himself nearer the post of Prime Minister than he has ever been before. In the lobbies afterwards even Chamberlainites were saying "we have now found our leader". Old Parliamentary hands have confessed that never in their experience had they seen a single speech so change the temper of the House.'
Former critics now saw Churchill's qualities. 'Winston is the only Cabinet Minister who can put things across in an arresting way to our people,' Thomas Jones wrote to a friend on September 30. 'The PM is costive and dull and talks of endurance and victory in the most defeatist tones.'
On October 1 Churchill made his first wartime radio broadcast. Of Poland in defeat he said, 'She will rise again like a rock, which may for a spell be submerged by a tidal wave, but which remains a rock.' As for the Royal Navy, it was now taking the offensive against German submarines, 'hunting them day and night-I will not say without mercy, because God forbid we should ever part company with that-but at any rate with zeal, and not altogether without relish.' The war might last for at least three years, but Britain would fight to the end, 'convinced that we are the defenders of civilisation and freedom'.
'Heard Winston Churchill's inspiring speech on the wireless,' Jock Colville, Chamberlain's Junior Private Secretary, wrote in his diary. 'He certainly gives one confidence and will, I suspect, be Prime Minister before the war is over.' Five days later, after Hitler spoke in Berlin of his willingness to negotiate peace with Britain and France in return for 'effective hegemony' over Czechoslovakia and Poland, Churchill advised his colleagues to reject any negotiations until reparations had been offered 'to the States and peoples who have been so wrongfully conquered' and until their 'effective life and sovereignty' had been unmistakably restored. He also advised them to try to find some way, while Italy remained neutral, to wean Mussolini away from Hitler.
There was a short break for Churchill from the concerns of war on October 4, when he went to St John's, Smith Square, for the wedding of his son Randolph to the nineteen-year-old Pamela Digby. To those who said the couple did not have enough money to be wed, Churchill commented, 'What do they need?-cigars, champagne and a double bed.'
***
On October 8 Churchill proposed setting up what he called a 'Home Guard' of half a million men over forty, men 'who are full of vigour and experience', many of whom had served in the last war but who were now being told that they were not wanted. They could guard domestic installations and liberate younger men for service in units preparing to go overseas.
In naval matters, reflecting on his visit to Scapa Flow, he advised that the Fleet there should not be 'tethered', as he had seen it. 'These next few days are full of danger.' His warning was timely, but not acted upon in time. Two days later, on October 14, a German submarine penetrated the Scapa Flow defences and sank the battleship Royal Oak, then at anchor; more than eight hundred officers and men were drowned. 'When I brought the news to Churchill,' one of his Private Secretaries, John Higham, later recalled, 'tears sprang to his eyes and he muttered, "Poor fellows, poor fellows, trapped in those black depths."'
Churchill went back to Scapa on October 31. His first instruction there was to order the camouflaging of the existing oil tanks, and the creation of dummy oil tanks which the Germans could see more easily and waste their bombs on. Two days later, having returned to London, he crossed the Channel by destroyer for France, his first wartime visit, to offer the French Navy a complete supply of Britain's revolutionary new submarine-detection device, and training in the use of it. The French Minister of Marine, Admiral Darlan, to whom he made the offer, was visibly moved by it. In Paris, Churchill saw the Prime Minister, Daladier, to whom he said that Britain wished 'to go better than our word' in the number of troops being sent to France.
Returning to London, Churchill spoke in the Commons on November 7 of the loss of the Royal Oak and the continuing German sinking of British merchant ships. Striking that balance between realism and confidence that was to become the hallmark of all his wartime speeches, he said: 'There will not be in this war any period when the seas will be completely safe; but neither will there be, I believe and trust, any period when the full necessary traffic of the Allies cannot be carried on. We shall suffer and we shall suffer continually, but by perseverance, and by taking measures on the largest scale, I feel no doubt that in the end we shall break their hearts.'
In a broadcast on November 12, by which time diplomatic and agents' reports had revealed German preparedness to attack in the West, he again spoke with confidence in the outcome of the war. 'Violent and dire events' might well occur. There would be 'very rough weather ahead'. But 'it may well be that the final extinction of a baleful domination will pave the way to a broader solidarity of all the men in all the lands than we could ever have planned if we had not marched together through the fire.'
***
Since the beginning of November, British shipping losses had increased in the North Sea, mainly through the German use of magnetic mines, to which no countermeasures were known. Admiralty experts worked day and night to try to find the secret of the new mine. On the night of November 22 the search took a turn towards a solution. 'A number of magnetic mines had now been located,' Churchill told the War Cabinet two days later, 'one of which had fallen on the mud near Shoeburyness, where it was uncovered at low tide.'
Naval officers were examining the mine. Two protuberances, which it was assumed were detonators, were detached, and taken away, with the mine, for detailed examination. At eleven o'clock on the night of November 23 Lieutenant-Commander Roger Lewis, one of the four men who had recovered the mine, reported to the Admiralty building. 'I gathered together eighty or a hundred officers and officials in our largest room,' Churchill later recalled, 'and a thrilled audience listened to the tale, deeply conscious of all that was at stake.'
When Lewis ended his account, Churchill commented, 'To sum up, you have dissected this monster, divided it into pieces and now you can examine it at leisure! You will be able to find out all the life history of this animal!' It was midnight. 'We have got our prize', Churchill told the assembled sailors, 'as good a ship as ever sailed the seas, and we owe a great deal to the public spirit of Lieutenant-Commander Lewis and his colleague Lieutenant-Commander Ouvry who have been up against it today'. One result of the recovery of the mine was the award, at Churchill's instigation, of the first five naval decorations of the war, two DSOs, one DSC and two DSMs, bestowed personally by King George VI.
***
On November 30 Churchill was sixty-five. From Asquith's daughter Violet came a word of greeting, 'You need no blood-transfusions, unlike some of our colleagues!' A week later he gave the Commons a further account of the war at sea. 'When estimating our naval tonnage,' Harold Nicolson noted, 'he adds in the ships operating on the Canadian Lakes. But he is vigorous and eloquent.'
That week Churchill was angered by Air Ministry objections to his plan to drop several thousand mines in the Rhine, with a view to disrupting one of Germany's main raw material and munitions supply routes. When the Air Ministry wrote that the scheme was 'unprofitable', Churchill commented in the margin, 'Don't irritate them, dear!' and in a letter to Kingsley Wood, seeking his support for the mining, he wrote: 'The offensive is three or four times as hard as passively enduring from day to day. It therefore requires all possible help in early stages. Nothing is easier than to smother it in the cradle. Yet here perhaps lies safety.'
On November 30 the Soviet Union had invaded Finland. Many Englishmen wished to go to the aid of the Finns. Churchill was not one of them; for him Germany was the enemy against whom all effort had to be focussed. 'I still hope war with Russia may be avoided, & it is my policy to try to avoid it,' he wrote to Dudley Pound as the war in Finland intensified. The bases which Russia would acquire from Finland, he pointed out, 'are only needed against Germany'. His chief concern was not the Baltic, but the Atlantic coast of Norway. In one week, seven German iron-ore ships had made use of Norwegian territorial waters. 'We must now make our case for action,' he wrote to Pound on December 7. A message from Washington indicated that President Roosevelt's reactions to the mining of Norwegian waters 'were more favourable than he had hoped', he told the War Cabinet on December 11.
Churchill now asked the War Cabinet for a decision as a matter of urgency. As well as mining Norwegian waters, he proposed a military landing at Narvik and an advance overland into Sweden to occupy the ore fields themselves. He proposed December 29 as the first day for action. But the War Cabinet, while agreeing to his plan in principle, refused to set a date, and asked that further enquiries be made, especially of the harmful effect the overland advance through Sweden might have on neutral opinion.
In the South Atlantic, the German pocket battleship Graf Spee was sinking merchant ships almost daily. On December 13, in the first dramatic naval success of the war, she was tracked down by three British cruisers, hit more than fifty times, and forced to find refuge in Uruguayan territorial waters. 'It had been most exciting to follow the drama of this brilliant action from the Admiralty War Room,' Churchill later recalled.
Four days later the Graf Spee blew herself up. In a broadcast that night, Churchill gave details of the action to the nation, confident, that 'in the end the difficulties will be surmounted, the problems solved and duty done'. Wrote one Conservative MP, Vyvyan Adams, 'I wish you could talk to us every night!' and he added, 'You are right, if I may say so, to emphasise the hardness of the struggle ahead.' To David Margesson, whose sister had just died, Churchill wrote that month, 'The world grows more ugly as we march through it.'
***
Shortly before Christmas, spurred by Churchill's encouragement, those working under him found a means to demagnetise ships, so that they could pass over the lethal magnetic mines without harm. 'We think we have got hold of its tail,' he telegraphed to President Roosevelt on December 24.
On Christmas Day Churchill reiterated to Chamberlain that all his naval advisers were 'dead set' on capturing the Swedish iron-ore fields 'and think it may be the shortest and surest road to the end'. Two days later he told the War Cabinet that the Admiralty were ready to send a naval force to stop the ore ships moving southward as soon as the War Cabinet authorised it. Once more, however, the only decision was to postpone a decision. On December 29, the day Churchill had originally proposed for action, he noted for the War Cabinet that eighteen iron-ore trains a day, instead of the ten hitherto, were being despatched from the mines to Narvik. 'Thus the German ore is flowing down and the British grievance is getting cold.'
Churchill now proposed a new timetable for action, with the seizure of German ore-bearing ships to begin in six days' time, on 4 January 1940. While warning that if there were too long a delay the Germans 'might attempt to forestall us', the Chiefs of Staff nevertheless favoured a larger operation against Sweden in March, rather than the coastal action against Norway in January. Churchill was cast down: 'I fear the effect will lead to purely negative conclusions, and that nothing will be done.'
On January 6 Churchill left London for France, crossing from Dover in the destroyer Codrington. With him were 'Prof' Lindemann, whom he described to the Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force, Lord Gort, as 'in all my secrets his son Randolph; his secretary Kathleen Hill; his naval aide-de-camp Lieutenant-Commander 'Tommy' Thompson, who was to travel with him throughout the war; two police inspectors, and his former detective, Walter Thompson, now back at his side, who was also to remain with him until the war was ended. That morning Churchill drove to Vincennes, to discuss with General Gamelin and Admiral Darlan the dropping of mines in the Rhine; Darlan was keen to act as soon as possible.
Churchill then drove to the Maginot Line, and finally to the headquarters of the French Army Staff at La Ferté, where he spent the night in a nearby hotel. On the following day he visited the headquarters of the British Advanced Air Striking Force, near Rheims, where he inspected gun positions and aerodromes, and stayed the night. On January 8 he went to Arras, where he lunched with Lord Gort and visited various military units. 'Anyone at home who feels a bit gloomy or fretful,' he said in a statement to the Press on the following day, 'would benefit very much by spending a few days with the British and French Armies. They would find it at once a tonic and a sedative. Unhappily the Admiralty cannot guarantee to find transport for all of them.'
Back in London on January 9, Churchill pressed for an improvement in the quality of the anti-aircraft guns in the British sector. He had also been disturbed, as in August 1939, by the two-hundred-mile gap between the northern end of the Maginot Line and the North Sea. This gap ran through Belgium. But despite pressure from both Chamberlain and Churchill, the Belgian King refused to allow British troops to move forward to fill it; he wanted the onus for the breaking of Belgian neutrality to be left to the Germans.
This was not the only negative decision that upset Churchill that week. On January 12 the War Cabinet decided, despite his urging to the contrary, that 'no action should be taken' to interrupt the German iron-ore traffic from Narvik. His frustration was intense. In a letter to Halifax on January 15 he wrote of 'the awful difficulties which our machinery of war-conduct presents to positive action. I see such immense walls of prevention, all built and building, that I wonder whether any plan will have a chance of climbing over them.' He had one or two projects moving forward, among them mining the Rhine and mining Norwegian waters, 'but all I fear will succumb before the tremendous array of negative arguments and forces'. One thing was 'absolutely certain, namely, that victory will never be found in taking the line of least resistance'.
At the War Cabinet on January 18 Churchill was angered to learn that the Ministry of Supply committee whose task was to co-ordinate munitions manufacture in the Birmingham area was only being inaugurated on the following day, that it would be solely advisory, and that it would have no powers to place actual orders for munitions. He had first advocated a Ministry of Supply with real powers on 23 April 1936. The Ministry had not been set up until 14 July 1939. Now he was learning that it still had no power to compel a manufacturer to fit in with the needs of the armed forces.
On January 20, in his fourth radio broadcast of the war, Churchill spoke of the Finns, who were still fighting stubbornly to resist the Russian Army. 'Only Finland,' he said, 'superb, nay, sublime-in the jaws of peril-Finland shows what free men can do.' He was scathing of the neutral States: 'Each one hopes that if it feeds the crocodile enough, the crocodile will eat him last.' They all hoped that the storm would pass 'before their turn comes to be devoured. But I fear-I greatly fear-the storm will not pass. It will rage and it will roar, ever more loudly, ever more widely. It will spread to the South; it will spread to the North.' There was no chance of a 'speedy end' to the war except through united action. If at any time Britain and France, 'wearying of the struggle, were to make a shameful peace, nothing would remain for the smaller States of Europe, with their shipping and their possessions, but to be divided between the opposite, though similar, barbarisms of Nazidom and Bolshevism'.
Churchill ended, however, on a note of confidence: 'Let the great cities of Warsaw, of Prague, of Vienna, banish despair even in the midst of their agony. Their liberation is sure. The day will come when the joybells will ring again throughout Europe, and when victorious nations, masters not only of their foes but of themselves, will plan and build in justice, in tradition, and in freedom a house of many mansions where there will be room for all.' The decisive factor in the victory would not be numbers but 'a cause which rouses the spontaneous surgings of the human spirit in millions of hearts'. If it had been otherwise, 'how would the race of men have risen above the apes; how otherwise would they have conquered and extirpated the dragons and monsters; how would they ever have evolved the moral theme?'
Millions of listeners were inspired by Churchill's words, which were listened to not only in Britain and France, but on clandestine radios throughout the conquered lands. However, four neutral states, Norway, Holland, Denmark and Switzerland, protested at his call for them to join the Allies. Halifax passed on these protests to Churchill, who replied: 'What the neutrals say is very different from what they feel: or from what is going to happen. This however touches upon prophecy.' Halifax did not tell Churchill that the French Government considered his call to the neutrals 'timely and carefully phrased', and had praised the speech itself for its 'realism and resolution'.
'Asking me not to make a speech,' Churchill added, 'is like asking a centipede to get along and not put a foot on the ground'.
A week later Churchill broadcast again, describing some of the atrocities which the Nazis were perpetrating in Poland, where thousands of civilians had been murdered in savage, indiscriminate butchery. From these 'shameful records', he said, 'we may judge what our own fate may be if we fall into their clutches'. Yet from these same records 'we may draw the force and inspiration to carry us forward upon our journey and not to pause or rest till liberation is done and justice achieved'.
More than three months had passed since Poland had been overrun. Since then Britain had remained on the defensive. Churchill was convinced that action should still be taken against the German iron-ore ships moving without interruption from Narvik to Germany. At the Supreme War Council in Paris on February 5, which he attended, it was finally decided to take control of the Swedish iron-ore fields.
At the Council that day it was also agreed to help Finland against Russia by sending more than 30,000 British and French troops to Scandinavia. The British Chiefs of Staff set March 20 as the date for a landing at Narvik.
Shortly after Churchill returned from France, a German supply ship, the Altmark, was sighted in Norwegian territorial waters. Locked below deck were 299 British prisoners, most of them the merchant seamen whom the Graf Spee had captured after sinking their ships in the South Atlantic. They were now being transferred to Germany to be interned. A British destroyer, the Cossack, had followed the Altmark into Norwegian waters. On February 16 Churchill personally wrote out the order to the commander of the destroyer, Captain Philip Vian, 'You should board Altmark, liberate the prisoners and take possession of the ship.' If the Norwegian torpedo-boat which was then alongside the Altmark should open fire, Churchill added, 'you should defend yourself using no more force than is necessary, and ceasing fire when she desists'.
Churchill waited anxiously that night to learn what had happened. A boarding party from the Cossack had gone on board the Altmark. In the ensuing fight, four Germans were killed; the rest surrendered or fled ashore. All the British prisoners were liberated. 'Winston deserves much credit,' wrote Lord Lloyd in a private letter on February 18. Five days later Churchill spoke at the Guildhall, to welcome back the crews of the warships which had ended the depredations of the Graf Spee. Theirs had been a brilliant sea fight, he said. 'In a dark, cold winter it warmed the cockles of the British heart.'
'Winston overbidding the market in his speeches,' was Hoare's comment. But for the British public there was something special in Churchill's language, tone and mood which made, and was to continue to make, his speeches a tonic. On February 27 he spoke again, introducing the Navy Estimates to Parliament for the first time since 1914. In his speech he gave details of 'outrages' committed by the Germans upon fishing fleets, small unarmed merchant-vessels, and lightships. Fishing-craft and small vessels were therefore being armed 'because it was found that nothing gives better results in respect to one of these raiders than to fire upon it at once'.
From Churchill's pre-war secretary Violet Pearman came a letter of thanks for his 'heartening' speech. 'I think the country relies on you more than any other member of the Cabinet to express national feeling in the only way that Germany understands, standing up to the bully and proving him the coward that he is.'
In his diary Halifax, a critic of more than a decade, noted on February 28: 'What an extraordinary creature he is, but I must say the more I see of him the more I like him. It is the combination of simplicity, energy and intellectual agility that is so entertaining.'
***
The Chiefs of Staff had set March 20 as the date for the Narvik landing and a military advance on the Swedish iron-ore fields. Churchill therefore went ahead with plans to mine Norwegian territorial waters as the preliminary to a landing. But on February 29 Chamberlain told the War Cabinet that the Labour Party leaders, Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood, had taken the view that Britain 'would not be justified in taking action that would injure a third party'. The United States might also object, Chamberlain felt, to the laying of mines in neutral waters. At present therefore the operation should be postponed. Churchill was outraged. The plan should have been carried out 'three months ago', he said. It was still not too late. It would 'do more to hasten the defeat of Germany than any other single measure within our power at the present time'.
Churchill was helpless in the face of Chamberlain's opposition, and the unwillingness of the War Cabinet to stick to a clear plan or fix a definite timetable. It was only on March 12 that the War Cabinet agreed to go ahead with a landing at Narvik, to be followed by a second landing further south. But on the following day the Finns signed a treaty with the Soviet Union, giving up large tracts of territory and fortifications. That night Chamberlain gave a 'standstill' order on the Narvik expedition.
Greatly vexed, Churchill wrote to Halifax that night: 'Considering the discomfort & sacrifice imposed upon the nation, public men charged with the conduct of the war should live in a continual stress of soul. Faithful discharge of duty is no excuse to Ministers: we have to contrive & compel victory.' Britain had sustained a 'major disaster' by not acting in the North, '& this had put the Germans more at their ease than they have ever been. Whether they have some positive plan of their own which will open upon us, I cannot tell. It would seem to me astonishing if they have not.' The Germans must have also have been thinking what to do. 'Surely they have a plan. We have none.'
On March 26 the Chiefs of Staff, of whom Pound was one, renewed their request for action against the Swedish iron-ore shipments to Germany. When the Supreme War Council met in London two days later, it agreed with Chamberlain's request to 'take all possible steps' to prevent Germany getting Swedish ore. Thus Churchill's proposal, first made on September 19, was finally being pushed forward as Allied policy. It was agreed that minefields would be laid in Norwegian waters on April 8, followed by naval control of the coastline and a military landing at Narvik. Churchill was relieved; a Cabinet Office interpreter, Captain Berkeley, noted in his diary that when the conclusions were reached 'Winston chortled loudly'. At last his energies could be put into a clear plan with a set timetable. In a broadcast on March 30 he forecast 'an intensification of the struggle', adding, 'We are certainly by no means inclined to shrink from it.'
Confidently, on April 2 Chamberlain declared in a public speech that Hitler had 'missed the bus'. But as Churchill had forecast in his letter to Halifax, the Germans also had a plan; it was to cast into jeopardy and confusion all that the War Cabinet had so belatedly agreed to do. Indeed, the nature and timing of the German plan were such that, at the very moment on April 8 that British naval forces were laying their mines in the fiord leading to Narvik, German military forces were being transported by sea to six points on the Norwegian coast, including Oslo. On the following morning a German force also landed at Narvik.
The British Government had delayed too long; despite Churchill's repeated calls for action. Within forty-eight hours the Germans had occupied Oslo. Denmark was occupied unopposed. On the evening of April 10, the British General who had earlier been appointed Commander-designate of a British Field Force, Major-General Mackesy, was instructed, while still in London, 'to eject the Germans from Narvik and establish control of Narvik itself'. His troops would not be ready to leave Britain for at least thirty-six hours.
It was too late; in the battle in northern Norway, as in the south, the Germans had the ascendancy, and air superiority. 'It is not the slightest use blaming the Allies,' Churchill told the Commons on April 11, 'for not being able to give substantial help and protection to neutral countries, if they are held at arm's length by the neutral countries until those countries are actually attacked on a scientifically prepared plan by Germany.' He made no public reference to his own quest for a plan and for action more than six months earlier, or to the War Cabinet's subsequent changes of plan, cancellations, hesitations and delays.
On April 13 seven German warships were sunk off Narvik, but the town itself remained in German hands. Further south there were successful British landings north and south of Trondheim, as part of a pincer attack on which Halifax was particularly keen, even though it diverted troops from the intended assault on Narvik. Off Narvik, General Mackesy decided that a direct assault on the town would not be 'practicable'. He did, however, land at three other points, the nearest thirty miles north of the town, and waited for a favourable moment to attack. By mid-April that favourable moment had not come; deep snow and night-time temperatures of zero degrees Fahrenheit led Mackesy to propose on April 17 a delay in any assault until the end of the month.
It looked as if a new word, 'Narvik', was going to be added to the earlier list of Churchill's failures. But the public no longer looked at individual episodes. It wanted leadership. Men and women of all political parties, and all walks of life, believed that Churchill could provide that leadership. His position in the country was 'unassailable', Colville noted on April 26. Three days later, as German troops forced the British to abandon the pincer assault on Trondheim and withdraw from their two coastal footholds, a deputation of senior Members of Parliament went to see Halifax to protest about the 'want of initiative' shown by the Government in almost every sphere of war policy.
Among many Conservatives in the House of Commons, so long loyal to Chamberlain, the failure in Norway was creating a mood of anger, even pressure for a change of Prime Minister. Henry Channon, a Chamberlain loyalist, noted in his diary on April 30 the view of many MPs 'that Winston should be Prime Minister as he has more vigour and the country is behind him'.
***
Between April 19 and mid-May more than a thousand top-secret German radio messages, orders, instructions, reports and routine returns, transmitted by radio in the Enigma cypher used by the German Air Force and Army in Norway for their most urgent and sensitive communications, were decrypted and read every day by the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley, north of London. The ability to decrypt these top-secret radio messages was a triumph of British Intelligence; a direct eavesdropping on the enemy. But so sudden and unexpected was the ability to decrypt these signals as they were picked up, that no secure system had yet been devised to convey the precious information to the British commanders in the field.
Despite repeated urging by Churchill, on May 5 General Mackesy again refused to attack the port. Churchill had no authority to overrule him, and no means to explain to him that the exhortations being sent to him were based on a precise knowledge of enemy strength and intentions.
The public had become restless at the continuing withdrawals and failures in Norway. There was growing mockery at Chamberlain's statement two months earlier that Hitler had 'missed the bus'. Many in both the Labour and Liberal Oppositions wanted Churchill to lead a Parliamentary revolt against Chamberlain. This he refused to do. He was a loyal member of the War Cabinet and would work as part of a team, without conspiracy. His task was to find some means of capturing Narvik; to this end he was devoting his time to the intricacies of military and naval planning.
Despite continued urging by Churchill, who knew from Enigma the German plans and weaknesses, the British Admiral in command off Norway, Lord Cork, hesitated to try to drive the Germans from Narvik. On May 1, in the hope of giving a greater impetus to the war direction, Chamberlain appointed Churchill to be Chairman of the Military Co-ordination Committee, consisting of the three Service Ministers and now vested with enhanced authority to give 'guidance and direction' to the Chiefs of Staff. But the change came too late. On May 3 the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Ironside, wrote in his diary: 'I hear that there is a first class row commencing in the House, and of a strong movement to get rid of the PM. Naturally the only man who can succeed is Winston and he is too unstable, though he has the genius to bring the war to an end.'
In Cabinet on May 6, Halifax took an initiative when, he later noted, 'I suggested one way to gain time was to delude the Germans with peace talk'. Churchill flared up in anger, accusing Halifax of treason, whereupon Halifax passed him a note: 'You are really very unjust to my irresponsible ideas. They may be silly, are certainly dangerous, but are not high treason.' Churchill gave the note back to Halifax with an apology: 'Dear Edward, I had a spasm of fear. I am sorry if I offended. It was a very deadly thought in the present atmosphere of frustration. You could not foresee this. Forgive me, W'.
***
Chamberlain now made another mistake, telling the Commons that in the battle for Norway 'the balance of advantage' rested with Britain. This was clearly untrue. In a mood of anger and uncertainty, people even spoke of bringing Lloyd George back to power, at the age of seventy-seven. Parliament was to debate the Norwegian battle on May 7. That morning Lord Cork telegraphed to Churchill that he could, after all, attack Narvik with what he called 'a good chance' of success. His telegram did not reach London until the evening; Parliament meanwhile, in angry mood, had begun its Norwegian debate.
As the Minister responsible for the Royal Navy, Churchill was one of the main targets of criticism on May 7. Loyally he prepared to defend the Government's actions, even those which he had opposed in the secrecy of the Cabinet. His task would be to wind up the debate; for much of its stormy course he therefore sat silent. When Chamberlain entered the House to defend the Norwegian campaign he was greeted by cries of 'Missed the bus!' When, incredibly, he made a reference to the complacency of the British people, there were loud and ironic cries from all sections of the House.
A few moments later Amery spoke. A former Conservative Minister, and Chamberlain's friend and political colleague for two decades, he turned towards the Prime Minister and quoted the words Cromwell had spoken to the Long Parliament nearly three hundred years earlier: 'You have sat too long for any good you have been doing. Depart, I say, and let us have done with you. In the name of God, go!'
The debate was to continue on May 8. That night Channon noted in his diary: 'The atmosphere was intense, and everywhere one heard whispers: "What will Winston do?"'
The second day of the Norway debate was as stormy as the first. There was fear that a feeble Government was inviting military disaster, even defeat. When the Labour Opposition called for the debate to end with a Vote of Censure on the Government, Chamberlain retorted that he had 'friends' in the House. His remark was greeted with cries of derision. 'It is not a question of who are the Prime Minister's friends,' retorted Lloyd George. 'It is a far bigger issue,' and he went on to demand Chamberlain's resignation.
Lloyd George also told the House that Churchill should not be blamed for all that had gone wrong in Norway. Churchill at once rose from his seat to declare, 'I take complete responsibility for everything that has been done at the Admiralty, and I take my full share of the burden.' Lloyd George then electrified the crowded Chamber by warning Churchill that he 'must not allow himself to be converted into an air-raid shelter to keep the splinters from hitting his colleagues'.
Churchill had soon to speak. Before doing so he talked briefly to Harold Macmillan. 'I wished him luck,' Macmillan later recalled, 'but added that I hoped his speech would not be too convincing.'
'Why not?' Churchill asked.
'Because we must have a new Prime Minister, and it must be you.'
Churchill understood his friend's concern. 'He answered gruffly,' Macmillan recalled, 'that he had signed on for the voyage and would stick to the ship.'
When Churchill spoke, he not only defended the Navy's conduct off Norway but also, as Lloyd George and Macmillan had feared, defended the Government's aim to try to drive the Germans from the Norwegian coast. 'One saw at once,' Channon wrote in his diary, 'that he was in bellicose mood, alive and enjoying himself, relishing the ironical position in which he found himself: i.e. that of defending his enemies, and a cause in which he did not believe.' In fact, Churchill was hopeful that the position in Norway could be improved. He knew, though he could not say so, that Lord Cork was now willing to try to seize Narvik, and was even then making plans to do so.
Commenting on Chamberlain's remark that he had 'friends' in the House, Churchill said: 'He thought he had some friends, and I hope he has some friends. He certainly had a good many when things were going well.' In a normal vote, Chamberlain and the Conservatives could count on a majority of more than two hundred. That night they secured a majority of only eighty-one. It was a hollow victory. As the vote was announced, many Members, in a hostile demonstration against the Prime Minister, began to sing 'Rule Britannia'. But even this unprecedented demonstration was drowned in cries of 'Go! Go! Go! Go!' as Chamberlain left the Chamber. David Margesson even feared for his master's physical safety as he walked out with him.
Chamberlain was devastated. That evening he went to Buckingham Palace to see the King, not to resign but to tell him he would try to form an all-Party Government, bringing in Labour and the Liberals. The hatreds which now existed between Chamberlain and the Opposition parties were too deep, however, to be bridged. For them, he was the embodiment of sloth and failure. On the following morning, May 9, he told one of his closest confidants, Sir Kingsley Wood, that if Labour would not agree to serve under him, he would resign. That day Churchill lunched with Kingsley Wood, who not only urged him to make clear his willingness to succeed Chamberlain, but warned that Chamberlain wanted Halifax to succeed him. Kingsley Wood's advice to Churchill was emphatic, 'Don't agree.'
That afternoon Chamberlain summoned Churchill and Halifax to Downing Street. The 'main thing', he told them, was to preserve national unity. Labour must therefore come into the Government. If Labour would not agree to serve under him, he was 'quite ready to resign'. He then asked the Labour Party leaders, Attlee and Greenwood, to come to Downing Street. Would they be willing, he asked them in front of Halifax and Churchill, to enter a Government of which he, Chamberlain, was Prime Minister? Or, if they would not serve under him, would they be willing to serve under another Conservative figure?
The Labour leaders explained that the answer to either question would depend upon the views of the Labour Party. They could quite quickly find out these views, as the Party was even then holding its annual conference, at Bournemouth. They thought, however, that the answer was likely to be 'no' to serving under Chamberlain, and 'yes' to serving under someone else. With that, they left Downing Street for the south coast, leaving Chamberlain, Churchill and Halifax alone. It was clear that either Churchill or Halifax would soon be Prime Minister. It was also clear that Chamberlain definitely preferred Halifax, his colleague of the past decade, to Churchill.
Chamberlain told the two contenders that Halifax was the one being 'mentioned as most acceptable'. Halifax explained, however, that he was reluctant to try to guide the fortunes of war from the House of Lords. He would be held responsible for everything, he said, but would not have 'the power to guide the assembly upon whose confidence the life of every Government depended'. Not being able to lead in the Commons, Halifax said, 'I should be a cypher'. Churchill made no comment. Halifax then said that he thought 'Winston would be a better choice'. Churchill did not demur. He was, Halifax noted a few hours later, 'very kind and polite, but showed that he thought this was the right solution'.
Churchill assured Chamberlain and Halifax that until he was asked by the King to form a Government, he would have no communication with either the Labour or Liberal leaders. With that, the meeting ended. Chamberlain's hopes of avoiding a Churchill Premiership seemed to be fading. Now the Government Chief Whip, David Margesson, Chamberlain's eyes and ears in the House of Commons, told him that Parliamentary opinion had been 'veering towards Churchill'.
That evening Churchill had dinner with several close political friends, among them Sinclair and Eden. He was in confident mood, telling his guests that he thought it plain that Chamberlain would advise the King to send for him, as Halifax 'did not wish to succeed'. There was even some talk over the dinner-table about the composition of his new Cabinet, assuming he were asked to form one; Churchill said he would want to keep Chamberlain in the Cabinet, make Eden Secretary of State for War, and make himself Minister of Defence as well as Prime Minister.
That night Churchill received a telephone call from Randolph, who was in his Army camp in northern England. What, asked Randolph, was the latest news? 'I think I shall be Prime Minister tomorrow,' his father replied.
***
In the early hours of the morning of May 10, Hitler's forces struck at Holland, Belgium and France. Chamberlain, learning this when he woke up, at once decided that such a moment of crisis was not the time for a change of Prime Minister. He must stay on; his place was at the helm.
Churchill's first meeting that morning began at six o'clock. Together with Oliver Stanley, the Secretary of State for War, and Hoare, the Secretary of State for Air, he discussed the immediate military, naval and air measures needed in the light of the German offensive. 'Churchill,' recalled Hoare, 'whose spirit, so far from being shaken by failure or disaster, gathered strength in a crisis, was ready as always with his confident advice.' Churchill, Hoare and Stanley had breakfast together. 'We had had little or no sleep,' Hoare later wrote, 'and the news could not have been worse. Yet there he was, smoking his large cigar and eating fried eggs and bacon, as if he had just returned from an early morning ride.'
At seven o'clock that morning Randolph telephoned his father again. He had just heard on the wireless the news of the German offensive. 'What's happening?' he asked. 'Well,' replied his father, 'the German hordes are pouring into the Low Countries.'
'What about what you told me last night,' Randolph asked, 'about you becoming Prime Minister today?'
'Oh, I don't know about that,' Churchill replied. 'Nothing matters now except beating the enemy.'
This was also Chamberlain's view; at eight o'clock that morning, when the War Cabinet met at Downing Street, he was in the chair as usual. When Hoare went to see him an hour later he found that Chamberlain's inclination 'was to withhold his resignation until the French battle was finished'. Slowly during the morning Conservative MPs learned that Chamberlain was staying on. Many of them were angry, even outraged. A senior Conservative, Lord Salisbury, on being asked his opinion, told the discontented Members, as one of them noted, 'that we must maintain our point of view, namely that Winston should be made Prime Minister during the course of the day'.
Shortly before ten o'clock, Kingsley Wood went to see Chamberlain at Downing Street. The Prime Minister told his colleague and friend of many years 'that he was inclined to feel that the great battle which had broken upon us made it necessary for him to remain at his post'. Wood was emphatic, however, that, as he told Chamberlain, 'the new crisis made it all the more necessary to have a National Government, which alone could confront it'.
A second War Cabinet had been summoned for eleven o'clock that morning. It met, with Chamberlain presiding, to discuss the German advance. At Churchill's suggestion, Sir Roger Keyes, one of Chamberlain's fiercest critics during the Norwegian debate two days earlier, was sent to Belgium to try to stiffen the resolve of the Belgian King. At half past four that afternoon the War Cabinet met again. It was reported that German paratroops had seized the airfield at Rotterdam, and that Holland was in danger of being rapidly overrun. A messenger from the War Office handed a note to Ironside, who read it out; German paratroops had landed behind the lines in Belgium. There was a discussion about the need to warn troops in Britain about what action to take against parachutists attempting to land.
Another messenger came in with a note for Chamberlain. The Prime Minister took it but said nothing, letting the discussion continue for a while. Then he interrupted it. He had now received, he said, from Bournemouth, the Labour Party's answer to his two questions of the previous afternoon. Their message was emphatic; no members of the Labour Party were prepared to serve under the present Prime Minister. The Labour leaders were prepared, however, to serve under a new Prime Minister. With this brief but stark communication Chamberlain's Premiership was effectively over. Within an hour he was at Buckingham Palace tendering his resignation to the King. That night the King wrote in his diary, 'I asked Chamberlain his advice, & he told me Winston was the man to send for.'
In the early evening of May 10, Churchill went to Buckingham Palace. 'I suppose you don't know why I have sent for you?' the King asked with a smile.
'Sir, I simply couldn't imagine why,' was Churchill's reply.
The King laughed, then said to Churchill, 'I want to ask you to form a Government.'
Churchill's eight and a half months of frustration were over. His life's ambition had been fulfilled. Before leaving Buckingham Palace he gave the King the names of some of those he hoped to have in his Government; among them four senior Labour men, Clement Attlee, Arthur Greenwood, Ernest Bevin and Herbert Morrison. It would be an all-Party Government, or, as he liked to call it, a 'Grand Coalition'.
While Churchill was talking to the King, his son Randolph, in his Army camp, was given a message asking him to telephone Admiralty House. He was put through to one of his father's Private Secretaries, whose message was brief, 'Only to say that your father has gone to the Palace and when he comes back he will be Prime Minister.'
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