'The Expeditionary Force about which you are so inquisitive is on its road & will be on the spot in time,' Churchill wrote to Clementine on August 9. Aware, however, of the hazards of war, he was worried about his wife and children remaining by the North Sea. Clementine was seven months pregnant. 'It is 100 to 1 against a raid,' he wrote to her, 'but there is still a chance: & Cromer has a good landing place near. I wish you would get the motor repaired & keep it so that you can whisk away, at the first sign of trouble.'
On August 6 the light cruiser Amphion sank a German minelayer and took her crew captive. A short while later, Amphion herself was sunk by a mine which the minelayer had laid; 150 British sailors were drowned, as were the captured Germans. Churchill decided to give the Commons full details of what had happened. It was an important decision and precedent, prompting the Manchester Guardian to comment, 'We much admired Mr Churchill's frankness in giving the account of the loss of the Amphion at once to the public.'
Unwilling to see Britain's naval role as a passive one, on August 9 Churchill urged Prince Louis to 'sustain and relieve' defensive actions at sea by 'active minor operations'. He suggested a naval assault on Ameland, one of the Dutch Frisian Islands, which should then be fortified and used as a naval base to hem in the German Fleet, and as an air base from which to bomb the Kiel Canal or vessels in it. Dutch neutrality need be no obstacle. What mattered was that such an initiative would 'maintain in lively vigour the spirit of enterprise & attack, which, when excluded from warlike operations, means that you are only waiting, wondering where you will be hit'.
The Naval War Staff judged the Ameland landing to be impracticable, and no plans were made. But Churchill's search for areas of effective action never ceased. When, on August 11, the two German warships Goeben and Breslau, having evaded their British pursuers in the Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean, entered the safety of Turkish waters, Churchill at once instructed the British Admiral to 'blockade' the Dardanelles. When it was pointed out to him that Britain was not at war with Turkey, he changed the instruction to 'carefully watch the entrance in case the enemy cruisers come out'.
On August 12, with Cabinet approval, Churchill set up a naval blockade of the German North Sea ports, to prevent supplies or food from reaching them, or leaving them. Four days later, seeking some means of absorbing the large number of men who were volunteering to fight, he set up a Royal Naval Division, whose men were later to fight on the Western Front and at Gallipoli. When things went well they called themselves 'Churchill's Pets', when things went badly they became 'Churchill's Innocent Victims'. Hundreds rushed to volunteer in the first days, some appealing direct to Churchill for a place. Among those for whom he obtained commissions was the poet Rupert Brooke.
Churchill now offered to send British troop transports into the Baltic, to enable the Russian Army to land in force on the German shore of that sea and to march on Berlin. A month later he arranged for several British submarines to be sent into the Baltic to help the Russian Navy against German warships. He also encouraged Kitchener to send to France the last division of professional soldiers then in England. The Admiralty was confident, he assured Kitchener on August 22, of its ability to secure Britain against invasion.
Two days later, while Churchill was working in the early morning in his bedroom at the Admiralty, the door opened and he saw Kitchener standing in the doorway. 'Though his manner was quite calm,' Churchill later wrote, 'his face was different. I had the subconscious feeling that it was distorted and discoloured as if it had been punched with a fist. His eyes rolled more than ever.' Kitchener had brought the news that the Belgian fortress of Namur had fallen to the Germans. Such forts were hitherto thought to be almost impregnable obstacles to any advancing army. Now Namur was in German hands and the road to the Channel Coast open.
Deeply perturbed by the news, Churchill went to see Lloyd George at the Treasury. It was their first private conversation since the outbreak of war. 'I felt intensely the need of contact with him,' Churchill later wrote, 'and I wanted to know how it would strike him and how he would face it.' Lloyd George gave Churchill the confidence he sought. Returning to the Admiralty he signalled to the new naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Jellicoe: 'We have not entered this business without resolve to see it through, and you may rest assured that our action will be proportioned to the gravity of the need. I have absolute confidence in final result.' A day later, as the British and French armies continued to fall back before the German thrust, Churchill wrote to his brother: 'No one can tell how far this great adventure may carry us all. Unless we win, I do not want to live any more. But win we will.'
Churchill's initiatives were unceasing. On August 26 he obtained Cabinet approval to send the Marine Brigade to the Belgian port of Ostend, to force the Germans to deflect troops from their main thrust further south. The stratagem was a success.
***
Clementine had returned from Cromer to London. She was with her husband when the news arrived of Britain's first naval victory, the sinking of three German cruisers in the Heligoland Bight. No British ships were sunk. Lord Haldane wrote to Churchill: 'The victory of the Fleet is worthy of the inspiring spirit of their First Lord. The British public & our allies will grow a cubit in confidence when they read the news tomorrow.' The victory excited the public; at the Guildhall on September 4, after Asquith and Bonar Law had spoken, the audience called for Churchill to speak. His words were met with rousing cheers. 'Sure I am of this,' he said, 'that you have only to endure to conquer. You have only to persevere to save yourselves, and to save all those who rely upon you. You have only to go right on, and at the end of the road, be it short or long, victory and honour will be found.'
After thirty days of war the British and French armies were in retreat. A mood of depression had fallen on the public. In his remarks at the Guildhall, Churchill had shown that he had the ability to lift the depression. Seeking to raise the morale of his Cabinet colleagues, he circulated his 1911 memorandum to them on September 2. 'Asquith said to me this afternoon that you were the equivalent of a large force in the field & this is true,' Haldane wrote to him on September 3. 'You inspire us all by your courage & resolution.'
On September 3 Kitchener asked Churchill to take over from the War Office the full responsibility for the aerial defence of Britain. He agreed to do so; one of his first acts was to establish a special air squadron at Hendon, in telephone communication with air stations near the coast 'for the purpose of attacking enemy aircraft which may attempt to molest London'.
That same day, in France, a Royal Naval Air Service pilot, based on Dunkirk, flew to the battle zone and dropped a bomb on a German military unit near the front. It was the first warlike act of what became known as Churchill's 'Dunkirk Circus', soon to be reinforced with armoured cars, mostly Rolls-Royce cars with armour plating, to enable aeroplane bases to be established as far as fifty miles inland. Three squadrons of aircraft, twenty-four machines in all, were sent over. Each squadron was commanded by one of the pilots who had earlier taught Churchill to fly: Eugene Gerrard, Spenser Grey and Richard Bell Davies.
***
After a month of war, the newspapers were full of stories of the continuing retreat. On August 30, during the retreat from Mons, The Times had written of 'the broken bits of many regiments' and of British soldiers 'battered with marching'. When Churchill protested about such 'panic-stricken stuff' appearing, Asquith asked him to issue, anonymously, a Press communiqué with more stuffing in it. Churchill did so. 'There is no doubt that our men have established a personal ascendancy over the Germans,' it read, 'and that they are conscious of the fact that, with anything like even numbers, the result would not be doubtful.' Churchill's communiqué was published on September 5. 'I am going to ask Winston to repeat his feat of last Sunday,' Asquith told Venetia, 'and to dish up for them with all his best journalistic condiments the military history of the week.'
Churchill's 1911 memorandum had forecast that the German advance into France would be halted on the fortieth day. On September 8, thirty-eight days after the German thrust had begun, French and British forces began to move forward across the River Marne, driving the Germans back. Paris was saved. That day Churchill spoke to Balfour about his plans. 'He talks airily of a British Army of a million men,' Balfour reported to Asquith, 'and tells me he is making siege mortars at Woolwich as big as, or bigger, than the German ones, in order to crush the Rhine fortresses.'
On September 10, telling only Asquith, Churchill crossed over to France, the first Cabinet Minister to do so in the war. For twenty-four hours he examined the fortifications of Dunkirk and inspected the air bases and armoured cars there. He also discussed the defence of the port with the French Governor, who, in the words of the British Consul, was 'very much encouraged' by Churchill's visit, which had a 'most wholesome effect' on the city's morale. A few days later, at Kitchener's request, Churchill sent the Marine Brigade to Dunkirk, to distract the German forces then moving cavalry units towards the Channel Coast.
Returning to London, Churchill was the Liberal Party speaker at an all-Party 'Call to Arms' at the Royal Opera House. Other than his brief remarks at the Guildhall a week earlier, it was his first public speech of the war. The effect was electrifying, the Manchester Guardian calling it 'a speech of tremendous voltage and carrying power'. As did so many of his speeches, it contained not only determination and confidence, but striking phrases which caught the public imagination. Speaking of the British bulldog, Churchill told the audience, 'The nose of the bulldog has been turned backwards so that he can breathe without letting go.' His speech did not gloss over the dangers; the war would be 'long and sombre', he warned. It would have 'many reverses of fortune, and many hopes falsified by subsequent events'.
There were those who felt that Churchill had a lust for battle. 'I am inclined almost to shiver,' Asquith wrote to Venetia on September 14, 'when I hear Winston say that the last thing he would pray for is Peace.' On the day after this comment, having presided at a conference at the Admiralty to accelerate aircraft production, Churchill returned, at Kitchener's request, to France. His mission was to explain to the Commander-in-Chief, Sir John French, why the British Expeditionary Force should take up its position along the Channel Coast, in contact with the Royal Navy, for the protection of the Channel ports.
At French's headquarters Churchill dined with Hugh Dawnay, a fellow colleague-in-arms at Omdurman and in South Africa. He also watched from a haystack the French artillery in action near Soissons. 'I saw for the first time,' he later recalled, 'what then seemed the prodigy of a British aeroplane threading its way among the smoke puffs of searching shells. I saw the big black German shells, the "Coal Boxes" and "Jack Johnsons" as they were then called, bursting in Paissy village. When darkness fell I saw the horizon lighted with the quick flashing of the cannonade. Such scenes were afterwards to become commonplace: but their first aspect was thrilling.'
Back in Britain, Churchill spoke on September 21 at another all-Party recruiting rally, in Liverpool. If the German Fleet did not come out and fight, he said, they would be 'dug out like rats in a hole'. Such a remark, commented the King, 'was hardly dignified for a Cabinet Minister'. It seemed all the more unfortunate when, on the following day, the Germans sank three British cruisers, with the loss of 1,459 officers and men. The three ships were on patrol that day near the Dogger Bank, despite Churchill's written instruction four days earlier that they 'ought not to continue on this beat' because of the risks. His instruction was unknown to the public, and subsequently kept secret by the Government. As a result, he was blamed for the loss of the ships and their men.
On the day of the Dogger Bank disaster Churchill was again in France, his third visit within two weeks. His aim was to encourage both the Royal Marines and the airmen based at Dunkirk to attack the German lines of communication. German troops, already in occupation of Brussels, were driving towards the Belgian Coast. Five days after his return to England he decided to cross over to France yet again. Clementine sought to dissuade him, or at least to persuade him to consult Kitchener in advance. 'It makes me grieve,' she wrote, 'to see you gloomy & dissatisfied with the unique position you have reached thro' years of ceaseless industry & foresight. The PM leans on you and listens to you more & more. You are the only young vital person in the Cabinet. It is really wicked of you not to be swelling with pride at being 1st Lord of the Admiralty during the greatest War since the beginning of the World. And there is still much to be done & only you can do it.'
Churchill took his wife's advice and asked Kitchener, who said he could go. Indeed, Kitchener welcomed the visit to Sir John French's headquarters, as it would enable Churchill to 'discountenance any wild talk' of a breach between Kitchener and French. It also enabled Churchill to tell the commander of the Royal Marines, who was then moving his men up from Dunkirk to Cassel, 'Select your point and hit hard.'
By October 2 the German forces advancing towards the Channel had reached Ypres and were poised to cut off the Belgian fortress and port city of Antwerp from the Allied armies. Asquith saw the fall of Antwerp as even more disastrous than that of Namur. 'It would leave the whole of Belgium for the moment at the mercy of the Germans,' he told Venetia. That day Churchill left London for his fifth visit to France, intending to gauge for himself the state of morale of the Royal Marines, airmen and armoured car operators who had been forced to pull back to Dunkirk from Cassel, and to discuss their future employment with the Commander-in-Chief. No sooner had he reached Victoria Station, however, than he was handed a message from Kitchener and Grey, asking him to abandon his journey and go immediately to Kitchener's house. There he found Grey and Prince Louis already with Kitchener. The cause of their concern was the news that the Belgian Government was about to abandon Antwerp.
For several hours the four men discussed how to get reinforcements to the city. It was clear that if the Belgian Government were to leave it, all armed resistance would collapse. Kitchener feared that if Antwerp could not hold out for at least another week, the Germans would win the race to the sea, and that Dunkirk and even Calais might be overrun, endangering Britain itself. To avert this, he wished to send a British relief force to the city, and to encourage the French to do likewise. As more and more telegrams were brought in, it was clear that the situation at Antwerp was obscure and the danger immediate. It was not even certain that the outer ring of forts was still intact. Churchill, who had been intending to spend that night at Dunkirk, now offered to go instead to Antwerp, to report back to Kitchener on the military situation, and if possible persuade the Belgians, if necessary with Anglo-French help, to hold the city, at least until the Allied forces could get back to the Belgian Coast and regroup.
Churchill returned to Victoria Station; shortly after midnight a special train took him to Dover, where he embarked on a destroyer for Ostend. From Ostend he drove to Antwerp. It was hoped, Grey telegraphed to the British Ambassador to Belgium, that when Churchill arrived at Antwerp he could have an audience with King Albert of the Belgians 'before a final decision as to the departure of the Government is taken'. The 'intrepid' Winston, Asquith told Venetia on the morning of October 3, 'will go straightway & beard the King & Ministers, & try to infuse into their back-bone the necessary quantity of starch'. He and Kitchener were both waiting for Churchill's report. 'I don't know how fluent he is in French,' Asquith added, 'but if he was able to do himself justice in a foreign tongue, the Beiges will have listened to a discourse the like of which they have never heard before. I cannot but think that he will stiffen them up to the sticking point.'
Later it was to become fashionable, even for Asquith, to mock Churchill's mission to Antwerp. On the morning of October 3, however, much seemed to depend upon it. When he reached Antwerp shortly after midday, the Belgian Government was still in the city, having decided not to leave before hearing what Churchill had to say, and to offer. The outer ring of forts was intact.
At the outset of his discussions, Churchill was told by Charles de Broqueville, the Belgian Prime Minister, that the Belgians were willing to try to hold the city for the next ten days at least. But he would not do so beyond the fourth day unless British reinforcements could be promised now. Intent on averting the nightmare posed by Kitchener, of a German advance to Calais, Churchill offered the Belgians not only the Marine Brigade then at Dunkirk, but the two brigades of the Royal Naval Division which he had set up in August, and which was still in training. In telegraphing to Kitchener, asking him to authorise the immediate despatch of all three brigades to help the Belgians, Churchill wrote, 'I must impress on you the necessity of making these worn and weary men throw their souls into it, or the whole thing will go with a run.'
The first two thousand Royal Marines would arrive in Antwerp on the following morning. Churchill decided to stay in the city until then in order to ensure their harmonious working with the Belgians. During October 4 he visited the forts, telegraphing to Kitchener that he had found their Belgian defenders 'weary and disheartened'. That day, as the Royal Marines arrived in Antwerp, a telegram from Kitchener told Churchill that the newly formed Naval Brigades could go to the city immediately.
Feeling that his presence could help to animate the defence, and integrate these two sets of British reinforcements, Churchill then took an extraordinary step, telegraphing Asquith early on the morning of October 5 with an offer to resign as First Lord 'and undertake command of relieving and defensive forces assigned to Antwerp'. He had one condition, that he be given 'necessary rank and authority, and full powers of a commander of a detached force in the Field'. He felt it his duty to offer his services in this way 'because I am sure this arrangement will afford the best prospect of a victorious result to an enterprise in which I am deeply involved'.
Asquith declined Churchill's offer. But he was impressed by his efforts so far, writing to Venetia, 'Winston succeeded in bucking up the Beiges, who gave up their panicky idea of retreating to Ostend, and are now holding Antwerp for as long as they can, trusting upon our coming to their final deliverance.' In Cabinet that morning several Ministers pressed Asquith to tell them when Churchill would return. He then read out Churchill's telegram. 'I regret to say it was received with a Homeric laugh,' he told Venetia. 'W is an ex-Lieutenant of Hussars and would if his proposal had been accepted have been in command of two distinguished Major Generals, not to mention Brigadiers, Colonels etc, while the Navy was only contributing its little brigades.'
Aware that the Navy's 'little brigades' were the sole British forces then available for the defence of Antwerp, and knowing Churchill's close involvement with modern warfare in the decade and a half since he had been a Lieutenant, Kitchener told Asquith that he was quite prepared to commission him as a Lieutenant-General. But Asquith insisted that Churchill return to Britain as soon as possible. A British General, Henry Rawlinson, was ordered to go to Antwerp with his division. But Rawlinson informed Kitchener that he could not reach the city for at least three days, possibly four. Meanwhile the German bombardment of the forts intensified. 'In view of the situation and developing German attack,' Churchill telegraphed to Kitchener on the afternoon of October 5, 'it is my duty to remain here and continue my direction of affairs unless relieved by some person of consequence. If we can hold out for next three days, prospects will not be unfavourable. But Belgians require to be braced to their task, and my presence is necessary.'
That evening Churchill went to Marine Brigade headquarters near one of the forts. An Italian war correspondent saw him there, 'He was tranquilly smoking a large cigar and looking at the progress of the battle under a rain of shrapnel, which I can only call fearful.' The two Naval Brigades were expected in Antwerp within twelve hours. Churchill reported this to the Belgian Council of War, which was much relieved. 'I have met Ministers in Council, who resolved to fight it out here, whatever happens,' he informed Kitchener that night.
When the Naval Brigades arrived on the morning of October 6, Churchill saw at once that they were far too tired to take the offensive. He therefore arranged with the Belgians that they should take up defensive positions between the front line and the city. Inadvertently, one unit of the new arrivals was sent forward almost immediately. Driving past them on his way back from the front, Churchill ordered them to return to trenches further back.
By midday on October 6 there were eight thousand British troops in the city. 'Under Winston's stimulus the Belgians are making a resolute stand,' Asquith told Venetia that day. 'He has done good service by way of starching and ironing the Beiges.' Asquith added that although General Rawlinson was expected in the city that day, 'Winston persists in remaining there, which leaves the Admiralty here without a head, and I have had to tell them (not being, entre nous, very trustful of the capacity of Prince Louis & his Board) to submit all decisions to me.'
That afternoon Rawlinson reached Antwerp. He and Churchill then went together to a Belgian Council of War. Although they were able to convince the Belgians that more reinforcements were on their way, including Rawlinson's 40,000 men, who were even then disembarking at Ostend, the Belgians now decided the city must be abandoned. German heavy howitzers would soon be close enough to bombard the centre. In a telegram to Kitchener, Churchill warned of the 'complete exhaustion and imminent demoralisation' of the Belgian Army.
That evening Churchill made a final visit to the front-line positions. Then, leaving Rawlinson in charge, he returned overnight through Ostend and Dover to London. As he reached Dover on the morning of October 7, his wife gave birth to their third child, Sarah. After visiting mother and child, Churchill went immediately to the Cabinet to report on his three and a half days at Antwerp. 'Winston is in great form & I think has thoroughly enjoyed his adventure,' Asquith told Venetia. 'He is certainly one of the people one would choose to go tiger-hunting with, tho' as you very truly say he ought to have been born in the centuries before specialism. He was quite ready to take over in Belgium, and did so in fact for a couple of days-the army, the navy & the civil government.'
Writing to Clementine from the Cabinet Room that morning, Sir Edward Grey told her that he was sitting next to her husband and 'feel a glow imparted by the thought that I am sitting next to a hero. I can't tell you how much I admire his courage & gallant spirit & genius for war.'
Later that day Churchill went to see Asquith and, Asquith told Venetia, 'became suddenly very confidential, and implored me not to take a "conventional view" of his future. Having, as he says, "tasted blood" these last few days he is beginning like a tiger to raven for more, and begs that sooner or later, & the sooner the better, he may be relieved of his present office & put in some kind of military command'. Churchill asked Asquith whether Kitchener's new armies, these 'glittering commands' he called them, were to be 'entrusted to "dug-out trash" bred on the obsolete tactics of twenty-five years earlier'. A political career was 'nothing to him in comparison with military glory'. He was, Asquith concluded, 'quite three parts serious'.
By October 8 the situation in Antwerp had so worsened that the 40,000 British reinforcements then on their way to the city were held back, and the British commander of the Royal Marines and Royal Naval Division sought permission to withdraw. Churchill at once telephoned the commander and urged him 'to hold on, even by his eye-brows'. That evening, however, with Antwerp itself in flames from the German bombardment, Churchill agreed that the British troops should pull out. 'Poor Winston is very depressed,' Asquith told Venetia, 'as he feels that his mission has been in vain.'
In fact, the extra six days' resistance of Antwerp since Churchill had persuaded the Belgians not to evacuate the city enabled the British Army to return safely to the Channel Coast, and to reform in Flanders. Antwerp surrendered to the Germans on the night of October 10. 'This last week,' Asquith told Venetia, 'which has delayed the fall of Antwerp by at least seven days, and has prevented the Germans from linking up their forces-has not been thrown away, and may with Sir J. French all the time coming round have even been of vital value.'
Churchill's dash to Antwerp, and his three and a half days there, quickly became a butt of Conservative derision. In a private letter, Bonar Law, who knew nothing of the background to Churchill's visit or its effect on prolonging Antwerp's resistance, wrote that the episode was 'an utterly stupid business' and that Churchill 'seemed to have an entirely unbalanced mind which is a real danger at a time like this'. The Morning Post called the despatch of British troops to Antwerp 'a costly blunder, for which Mr W Churchill must be held responsible'. The Daily Mail called it 'a gross example of mal-organisation which has cost valuable lives'.
During the fighting around Antwerp, fifty-seven of the British defenders had been killed. The phrase 'Antwerp blunder', as many called it, was now linked inexorably to Churchill's name. Disconsolately he spoke to his closest friends of resignation. Haldane sought to dissuade him. 'You are unique & invaluable to the nation, full of courage and resource,' he wrote. 'Do not pay the least attention to the fools who write & talk in the Press. It is the real thing that counts, & the nation thoroughly believes in you.' Churchill felt that the outburst of criticism had weakened his position. 'Antwerp was a blow,' he wrote to Sir John French, 'and some aspects of it have given a handle to my enemies, and perhaps for a time reduced my power to be useful.'
On October 8, at the height of the struggle for Antwerp, Churchill authorised one of his former flying instructors, Spenser Grey, to lead a flight of four aeroplanes to Cologne; they dropped their sixteen bombs on a military railway station. On the following day a Royal Naval Air Service pilot dropped his two bombs on a Zeppelin shed at Düsseldorf, destroying the airship inside. According to a report from Germany which reached Churchill later that month, 'The occurrence produced great consternation in Berlin as they did not believe such a raid was possible for a British aviator.'
German forces now reached Ostend and began to move westward. In response to an appeal from the French Army, Churchill ordered a naval bombardment of the German-held coast to begin on October 17. He also ordered a small Marine and Yeomanry force, in which his brother was serving, to make a series of sorties from Dunkirk towards Ostend, to keep the German line as far east as possible. 'My heart marched with you down the road from Dunkirk,' he wrote to his brother. And he added, 'I heard the crack of their shells for four days at Antwerp, & I could be quite content, I can assure you, to ride along in my place with you all.'
The combined Naval and Marine Yeomanry action was effective in helping to halt the German advance along the North Sea coast, leaving a small strip of the Belgian coastline in Allied hands for the rest of the war. But Churchill was frustrated at the lack of opportunities for action. He and Asquith found Prince Louis a negative influence as far as proposals for action were concerned; towards the end of October, Asquith told Venetia that he and Churchill had 'both enlarged on the want of initiative & constructive thought of the present naval advisers'. For example, Asquith told her, nothing had been done to produce protective devices against the submarine; Prince Louis, he added, 'must go'.
Churchill wanted the seventy-four-year-old Lord Fisher as his new First Sea Lord. 'Contact with you is like breathing ozone to me,' he had written to Fisher on New Year's Day 1914. Despite Fisher's irascibility, Churchill was confident that his energy would revitalise the Navy and help drive it to victory. At an audience at Buckingham Palace, however, the King told Churchill that he opposed Fisher's appointment, arguing that the Admiral was too old and too divisive. Fisher later told a friend: 'When the King said to Winston and the Prime Minister (to dissuade them!) that the job would kill me, Winston instantly replied, "Sir, I cannot imagine a more glorious death." !!! Wasn't that lovely?'
According to a note made by the King's Private Secretary, Churchill answered the King's criticisms of Fisher's age with a hint of his own resignation, telling the King he would 'not be sorry to leave the Admiralty as its work was very uncongenial to him: he wanted to go to the war & fight and be a soldier'. After consulting Asquith, the King accepted Fisher as First Sea Lord. Churchill now felt that he had a partner in zeal. The Times welcomed the change on the grounds that Fisher would exercise a restraining influence on Churchill. When the King warned Asquith that Fisher 'would be almost certain to get on badly with Winston', Asquith commented to Venetia that on this point, 'I have some misgivings of my own.'
Fisher returned to the Admiralty as First Sea Lord on October 29. That same day the Goeben and the Breslau, which had earlier been transferred by the Germans to Turkish control, bombarded the Russian Black Sea ports of Odessa, Nikolaev and Sevastopol. The British Government at once sent an ultimatum to the Turks, ordering them to dismiss the German military and naval missions at Constantinople and remove all German personnel from the two warships. The Turks refused to do so. Learning this, Churchill asked Fisher to look into the possibility of bombarding the outer forts of the Dardanelles, telling him, 'It is a good thing to give a prompt blow.'
Churchill wanted to be ready to take immediate action. 'We ought to have a means of striking them ready prepared,' he told Fisher on October 31. The British ultimatum expired at noon that day. Two days later, having obtained Fisher's approval, Churchill signalled Vice-Admiral Carden, who was in command of all British naval forces in the Eastern Mediterranean, to bombard the outer forts at the Dardanelles. 'Retirements should be made before fire from the forts becomes effective,' Churchill told Carden. On the following day the bombardment was carried out. It lasted for ten minutes. One shell, hitting the magazine at the main fort of Sedd-el-Bahr, destroyed almost all its heavy guns. The damage was never repaired.
***
Fisher's return to the Admiralty coincided with the worst British naval disaster of the war, the sinking of two British cruisers off Coronel, on the Pacific coast of Chile, by a German naval squadron under Count von Spee. The British Admiral, Sir Christopher Cradock, had one battleship, Canopus, which, although slower than the rest of his force, had the firepower to keep the German ships at bay. For this reason the Admiralty had earlier instructed him not to separate Canopus from the rest of his force. Cradock had discarded this advice, risking, and meeting, defeat, his own death, and the loss of 1,500 men.
Not knowing the facts, there were those who hastened to blame Churchill for this defeat. But the main call was for revenge. Asquith wrote to Venetia: 'If the Admiral had followed his instructions he would never have met them with an inferior force. As I told Winston last night (and he is not in the least to blame) it is time that he bagged something & broke some crockery.' With Fisher's dynamism as a spur, Churchill ordered a formidable force to be concentrated against the victorious von Spee. Within six weeks his squadron was tracked down and destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. Like Cradock off Coronel, von Spee went down with his ship.
The tragedies of the war now began to impinge upon Churchill. At the end of October he learned that his twenty-eight-year-old cousin Norman Leslie had been killed at Armentières. 'My heart bleeds for you,' he wrote to Norman's mother, his Aunt Leonie. 'We must at all costs win. Victory is a better boon than life and without it life will be unendurable. The British Army has in a few weeks of war revived before the whole world the glories of Agincourt and Blenheim and Waterloo, and in this Norman has played his part. It rests with us to make sure that these sacrifices are not made in vain.'
On November 6 Churchill's friend Hugh Dawnay was killed in the Ypres salient. 'What would happen I wonder,' Churchill wrote to Clementine later that month, 'if the armies suddenly & simultaneously went on strike and said some other method must be found of settling the dispute! Meanwhile however new avalanches of men are preparing to mingle in the conflict and it widens every hour.'
The British Army now struggled to hold a line in Flanders beyond which the Germans would not pass. With the establishment of this Western Front, and its fortification by trenches, barbed wire and machine-gun posts, almost no week now passed without one or more of Churchill's friends being killed. 'My dear I am always anxious about you,' he wrote in November to his brother, who was then at Ypres. 'It would take the edge off much if I could be with you. I expect I should be very frightened but I would dissemble.'
On November 30, Churchill was forty years old. That week, in an attempt to confine the discussion of war policy to as few people as possible, Asquith created a War Council consisting of himself, Grey, Lloyd George, Kitchener and Churchill. At its meeting on December 1, with Fisher's approval, Churchill proposed a British assault on the German North Sea island of Sylt. This would then become a British air base, monitoring any German preparations for the invasion of Britain, keeping the movements of the German Fleet under constant observation, and enabling British pilots to 'drop bombs every few days' on Germany.
The Admiralty was authorised to examine the plan in detail. 'But,' Churchill complained to Fisher three weeks later, 'I cannot find anyone to make such a plan alive & dominant.' Britain's situation, Churchill added, 'is as I have told you, & as you justly say, that of waiting to be kicked, & wondering when & where.'
Churchill's thoughts that winter were not only on the North Sea. 'His volatile mind is at present set on Turkey & Bulgaria,' Asquith told Venetia on December 5, '& he wants to organise a heroic adventure against Gallipoli and the Dardanelles: to which I am altogether opposed.' In the hope of persuading Greece, then neutral, to join the Entente Powers and go to the aid of Serbia, Churchill suggested offering her Constantinople. As a first step to Greece winning this long-desired prize, he envisaged a Greek Army joining with the Royal Navy in a combined naval and military attack on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
On December 14 the Serbian Army drove the Austrians from Belgrade. For the time being there was no need to go to Serbia's aid. But a new sphere of possible military operations quickly emerged, disclosed to the War Council in a telegram from Russia on December 21. This telegram warned that the Russian Army was desperately short of ammunition and urgently needed some diversion against Germany from the West. Churchill suggested a British naval initiative, an incursion into the Baltic and the seizure of the Danish island of Bornholm. Denmark was a neutral state; Churchill hoped to persuade her to join the Entente. Under his plan, Bornholm would become a combined Anglo-Russian base, enabling British troops to cross the Baltic, and land at Kiel, and Russian troops to land on the German Baltic coast, whence they could march overland to Berlin. 'The Baltic is the only theatre in which naval action can appreciably shorten the war,' he told Fisher on December 22. 'Denmark must come in, & the Russians be let loose on Berlin.'
Churchill worked tirelessly to devise some plan of campaign that might hasten the end of the war, assisted by his Admiralty Secretary, James Masterton-Smith, and by Edward Marsh. On December 22 Asquith told Venetia, 'I am writing in the Cabinet room at the beginning of twilight, and thro' the opposite window across the Parade I see the Admiralty flag flying & the lights "beginning to twinkle" from the rooms where Winston and his two familiars (Eddie and Masterton) are beating out their plans.'
One of these plans came to fruition on Christmas Day, a raid by seven naval seaplanes on the German warships lying in the Schillig Roads off Cuxhaven; all but one of the pilots returned safely. Four days later, in a letter to Asquith, Churchill reiterated his Baltic plan, arguing that no further progress could now be made on the Western Front, where the trench lines were being dug and fortified from the North Sea to the Swiss border. 'Are there not other alternatives than sending our armies to chew barbed wire in Flanders?' he asked. 'Furthermore, cannot the power of the Navy be brought more directly to bear upon the enemy?' Once British ships had seized control of Bornholm, he pointed out, the Russian Army could be landed 'within ninety miles of Berlin'.
Lloyd George was also searching for an alternate war-zone to the Western Front. His plan, which he likewise put to Asquith at the end of December, was for a British landing at the Greek port of Salonica, to link up with the Serbian Army. He also wanted to strike at Turkey by landing 100,000 men on the Syrian coast. This, he explained, would have the effect of relieving the Turkish pressure then being exerted against Russia in the Caucasus.
The Secretary to the War Council, Maurice Hankey, a former Royal Marine Colonel, suggested that same week that Germany 'can perhaps be struck most effectively and with the most lasting results for the peace of the world through her allies, and particularly through Turkey'. A combination of three British Army corps, plus Greek and Bulgarian troops ought, he wrote, 'to be sufficient to capture Constantinople'. Fisher was so impressed by Hankey's suggestion that he sent Churchill an eight-point plan for the defeat of both Turkey and Austria-Hungary. This included the landing of 75,000 British soldiers at Besika Bay just south of the Dardanelles, a Greek military landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and a British naval attack to force the Dardanelles with old battleships. 'I consider the attack on Turkey holds the field,' Fisher wrote to Churchill on 3 January 1915. 'But only if it's immediate.'
The day before Fisher's letter, the Turkish option unexpectedly gained in both attractiveness and urgency when Grey received a telegram from the British Ambassador to Russia, who reported that the Russian Army, hard pressed by the Turks in the Caucasus, wanted Britain to carry out 'a demonstration of some kind against Turks elsewhere, either naval or military', to force the Turks to withdraw some of their forces in the Caucasus. Grey sent this appeal to Kitchener, who wrote at once to Churchill, 'Do you think any naval actions would be possible to prevent Turks sending more men into the Caucasus & thus denuding Constantinople.'
Before Churchill could answer, Kitchener came to see him at the Admiralty. 'Could we not, for instance, make a demonstration at the Dardanelles?' he asked. Churchill replied that a naval attack alone would be ineffectual. A combined military and naval assault might be another matter. Kitchener went back to the War Office to consult with his advisers, but they were adamant that no spare troops were available for such an action. 'We shall not be ready for anything big for some months,' Kitchener told Churchill, but he went on to express his conviction that the 'only place' where a demonstration might 'have some effect in stopping reinforcements going East would be the Dardanelles', particularly if reports could be spread at the same time that Constantinople was threatened.
Churchill summoned his advisers to discuss a possible naval demonstration at the Dardanelles. There was general scepticism, which he shared, about the efficacy of a purely naval attack. Any such attack would in any case have to make use of old battleships not needed in the North Sea. Churchill then telegraphed to Admiral Carden, whose ships were even then blockading the Dardanelles: 'Do you consider the forcing of the Dardanelles by ships alone a practicable operation. It is assumed older battleships fitted with mine bumpers would be used, preceded by colliers or other merchant craft as bumpers and sweepers. Importance of result would justify severe loss. Let me know your views.'
Churchill still felt the Navy's main contribution to victory would be to seize a German island off the North Sea coast: he earlier suggested Sylt; he now suggested Borkum. On January 3, awaiting Carden's reply from the Dardanelles, he proposed March or April for the action, writing privately to Fisher: 'Borkum is the key to all northern possibilities, whether defensive against raid or invasion, or offensive to block the enemy in, or to invade either Oldenburg or Schleswig-Holstein.' An infantry division should now be assigned by the War Office to capture Borkum. As to Fisher's plan for invading Turkey, 'I would not grudge 100,000 men,' he wrote, 'because of the great political effect in the Balkan Peninsula: but Germany is the foe, & it is bad war to seek cheaper victories & easier antagonists.'
Fisher tried to enlist Balfour's support for the Turkish plan. 'The naval advantages of the possession of Constantinople and the getting of wheat from the Black Sea are so overwhelming,' he wrote on January 4, 'that I consider Colonel Hankey's plan for Turkish operations vital and imperative and very pressing.' On the following day Admiral Carden replied to the question about a possible naval attack on the Dardanelles. To the surprise of all at the Admiralty, he did not dismiss the idea. His reply was brief and positive. 'With reference to your telegram of the 3rd inst,' he wrote, 'I do not consider Dardanelles can be rushed. They might be forced by extended operations with large numbers of ships.'
The War Council met that afternoon. Churchill was still eager to push ahead with his North Sea plan, and to get a timetable for it. After the Council, Asquith sent Venetia a summary of the proposed plans: Churchill had advocated the seizure of Borkum and a British military landing near the Kiel Canal. Lloyd George had argued for a landing at Salonica, or on the Dalmatian Coast of Austria-Hungary. F.E. Smith had sent the Council a plan to land a British force on the Turkish coast near Smyrna; Kitchener had argued for 'Gallipoli & Constantinople.'
In support of the Russian appeal, Kitchener pressed his War Council colleagues for a demonstration at the Dardanelles. Churchill then read out to them Carden's telegram, which seemed to offer the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles by ships alone, and thus enable British warships to reach Constantinople. Returning to the Admiralty, he found that his principal naval advisers shared Carden's view that a systematic naval bombardment of the Turkish forts could be effective. The earlier bombardment of November 3 had impressed them. 'Your view is agreed with by high authorities here,' Churchill telegraphed to Carden on January 6. 'Please telegraph in detail what you think could be done by extended operations, what force would be needed, and how you would consider it should be used.'
The naval attack on the Dardanelles now became a matter of planning and detail. But Churchill still saw his North Sea plan as the one potentially effective naval initiative, and at the War Council on January 7 he set it out in detail. Fisher supported him, telling the Council that the Navy would be ready to seize Borkum within three months. Kitchener agreed to spare a division of troops to take part in the landing. 'W pressed his scheme for acquiring a base at Borkum,' Asquith told Venetia, 'a big business, as it is heavily fortified, and the necessary preparations will take till near the end of March. We gave him authority for this.'
On the Western Front, the conditions of trench warfare worsened with the continuation of winter. Reading a proposal by Hankey for a trench-crossing machine, Churchill's imagination was stirred. On January 5 he wrote to Asquith: 'It would be quite easy in a short time to fit up a number of steam tractors with small armoured shelters, in which men and machine guns could be placed, which would be bullet-proof. Used at night, they would not be affected by artillery fire to any extent. The caterpillar system would enable trenches to be crossed quite easily, and the weight of the machine would destroy all wire entanglements. Forty or fifty of these engines, prepared secretly and brought into positions at nightfall, could advance quite certainly into the enemy's trenches, smashing away all the obstructions, and sweeping the trenches with their machine-gun fire, and with grenades thrown out of the top. They would then make so many points d'appuis for the British supporting infantry to rush forward and rally on them. They can then move forward to attack the second line of trenches.'
Churchill wanted Asquith to authorise the necessary expenditure to prepare a prototype. 'The cost would be small,' he wrote. 'If the experiment did not answer, what harm would be done? An obvious measure of prudence would have been to have started something like this two months ago. It should certainly be done now.' Asquith sent Churchill's letter to Kitchener, who set in motion a certain amount of design work at the War Office. This did not satisfy Churchill, who felt that the military authorities were not really convinced either that the machine could be made, or that it would be of much value once it was completed.
The stalemate and heavy casualties of trench warfare continued. On January 7, two days after his proposal for what would in due course become a new weapon of war, the tank, Churchill again wrote to Asquith about the Western Front. 'Ought we not to get into a more comfortable, dry, habitable line, even if we have to retire a few miles?' he asked. 'Our troops are rotting.' At the War Council on the following day, Lloyd George pressed for military landings on the Adriatic Coast of Austria-Hungary. Kitchener opposed this, stressing again that 'the most suitable objective' of any new military action was at the Dardanelles, 'as an attack here could be made in co-operation with the Fleet'. If successful, he said, 'it would re-establish communication with Russia; settle the Near Eastern question; draw in Greece, and perhaps Bulgaria and Rumania; and release wheat and shipping now locked up in the Black Sea'.
Kitchener's suggestion of a military as well as naval assault on the Dardanelles was supported by Hankey. Success at the Dardanelles, he said, 'would give us the Danube as a line of communication for an army penetrating into the heart of Austria, and bring our sea power to bear in the middle of Europe'. Churchill, while willing to 'study' these suggested operations, spoke forcefully for his Baltic concept, emphasising that it might persuade the Dutch to enter the war on the side of the Entente, thus providing a British naval base in the North Sea 'without fighting for it this would enable the British armies to advance from Dutch territory into the German industrial heartland. It was not until 'the Northern possibilities are exhausted', he wrote on January 11 to Sir John French, 'that I would look to the South of Europe for the profitable employment of our expanding military forces'.
Admiral Fisher, however, Churchill's senior naval adviser, was more and more struck by the possibilities of the Turkish theatre of war. 'If the Greeks land 100,000 men on the Gallipoli Peninsula in concert with a British naval attack on the Dardanelles,' Fisher wrote to a friend, 'I think we could count on an easy and quick arrival at Constantinople.'
Amid these crucial daily debates, Churchill found little time for relaxation. On January 10 and 11 he and Clementine were the guests of a Liberal Peer, Lord Beauchamp, at Walmer Castle on the Kent coast, where the Asquiths were also staying. Talking about the war, Churchill said, according to Margot Asquith's account in her diary: 'My God! This is living History. Everything we are doing and saying is thrilling-it will be read by a thousand generations, think of that! Why I would not be out of this glorious delicious war for anything the world could give me (eyes glowing but with a slight anxiety lest the word "delicious" should jar on me). I say, don't repeat the word "delicious"-you know what I mean.'
The Asquith family were fascinated with Churchill, sometimes his sternest critics, at others his warmest admirers; two months earlier Asquith had sent Venetia a thumbnail sketch of him, 'Winston, whom most people would call ugly, but whose eyes, when he is really interested, have the glow of genius'. On another occasion, in reflecting on Churchill's character and qualities, he quoted Edward Grey's description of genius, 'a zig-zag streak of lightning through the brain'.
On January 12 Churchill's Admiralty War Group, headed by Fisher, received another telegram from Carden, not only giving in detail his plan to force the Dardanelles, but suggesting that it might be done in about a month. Carden listed his needs; all of them were surplus to Britain's naval needs elsewhere, including four battleships launched before 1906 and no longer of value in the North Sea. Fisher was so enthusiastic at the thought of forcing the Dardanelles by ships alone that he proposed to add the most modern of all Britain's battleships, the Queen Elizabeth, whose 15-inch guns had not yet even been fired. They were about to be tested in the sea off Gibraltar. Far better, Fisher suggested, that they should be fired at the Dardanelles forts.
Churchill was suddenly caught up by the thought of the Queen Elizabeth in action at the Dardanelles. For the first time he saw the full prospects opened up once so powerful a warship was in the Sea of Marmara. The Goeben and Breslau would be out-gunned; Constantinople would be at Britain's mercy; Enver Pasha, now Minister of War, whom Churchill had met before the war both at German Army manoeuvres at Würzburg, and at Constantinople, would abandon the German cause. Churchill explained all this to the War Council on the evening of January 13. According to the minutes of the meeting, Lloyd George 'liked the plan', as did Kitchener. Asquith listened while other ideas were also put forward; Grey wanted a landing at Cattaro, on the Adriatic, to persuade Italy to join the Anglo-French Entente. Lloyd George then reverted to the idea of a landing at Salonica. Churchill again raised his plan for what the minutes of the meeting called 'action in Holland'.
'I maintained an unbroken silence to the end,' Asquith told Venetia, 'when I intervened with my conclusions.' These were twofold; that the Admiralty should consider 'promptly' the possibility of naval action at Cattaro or elsewhere in the Adriatic 'with the view (inter alia) of bringing pressure on Italy', and that the Admiralty 'should also prepare for a naval expedition in February to bombard and take the Gallipoli Peninsula, with Constantinople as its objective'.
Planning for the 'naval expedition' went ahead at once. The vessels Carden had asked for were put under orders; Malta dockyard would fit them with mine-bumpers. A landing place for aeroplanes would be established on the nearby Greek island of Tenedos. At Fisher's request, Churchill persuaded Asquith to give up the Adriatic plan. The naval attack on the Dardanelles, he explained, 'will require practically our whole available margin'. Success, according to Fisher, 'will produce results which will undoubtedly influence every Mediterranean power'.
Fisher now began to waver from his enthusiasm and constructive support of the previous day. He wanted the destroyer flotilla already under Carden's command to be replaced by French ships. When an Australian submarine reached the Dardanelles and joined Carden's fleet, he called it 'inexcusable to waste her on the Turks'. He wrote to Jellicoe of the need for 200,000 troops to act 'in conjunction with the Fleet otherwise, he declared, 'I just abominate the Dardanelles'. Churchill had brought in Fisher to strengthen the war-making initiatives of the Admiralty. He now found Fisher's conduct bizarre and disruptive. Others saw clearly the danger which Fisher posed. 'He is old & worn out & nervous,' Captain Richmond, the Assistant Director of Operations at the Admiralty, wrote in his diary on January 19. 'It is ill to have the destinies of an empire in the hands of a failing old man, anxious for popularity, afraid of any local mishap which may be put down to his dispositions.'
On January 25, in a letter to Churchill, Fisher offered to resign. He had already done so once before, in protest against the Government's refusal to shoot German prisoners-of-war as reprisal for Zeppelin attacks on Britain. Now it was the despatch of old battleships to the Dardanelles that had provoked him, 'for they cannot be lost without losing men, and they form the only reserve behind the Grand Fleet'. Churchill replied by pointing out that surplus ships would always be used in ancillary operations, and that 'with care and skill losses may be reduced to a minimum'. His letter ended, 'You & I are so much stronger together.'
Fisher wanted his protest and Churchill's reply to be circulated to the War Council, but Asquith would not allow it. Meanwhile, the ships Carden wanted were on their way to him, from South America, St Helena, Ceylon and Egypt. In all, he was to be sent thirteen battleships, including not only Queen Elizabeth, which Fisher had suggested earlier, but two more which he suggested now, despite his letter of protest, Lord Nelson and Agamemnon.
On January 26, Churchill secured the French Government's agreement to participate in the Dardanelles bombardment. Then, a few hours before the War Council was to meet to give its final approval, Fisher wrote to Asquith that he was against the plan unless there was 'military cooperation'. He would not attend the War Council. Churchill persuaded Fisher to go with him to see Asquith twenty minutes before the War Council. At this meeting, Asquith was emphatic that 'the Dardanelles should go forward'. But at the War Council, which he agreed to attend, Fisher suddenly got up and tried to leave the room. Kitchener, seeing him leaving, followed him to the door and asked what he intended to do. Fisher replied, as he himself later recorded in the third person, 'that he would not return to the Council table, and would resign his office as First Sea Lord'. Kitchener then pointed out that Fisher was 'the only dissentient, and that the Dardanelles operation had been decided upon by the Prime Minister'.
Fisher agreed to return to the Council table, in time to hear Asquith ask what importance the members attached to the Dardanelles operation. Kitchener, who spoke first, said he considered the naval attack 'to be vitally important'. If successful 'its effect would be equivalent to that of a successful campaign fought with the new armies'. Balfour, invited as a former Prime Minister to give his view, then told the Council that a successful attack would not only 'put Constantinople under our control' but would also 'open a passage to the Danube'. Balfour added: 'It was difficult to imagine a more helpful operation.' Grey was equally enthusiastic, telling the War Council that success at the Dardanelles 'would also finally settle the attitude of Bulgaria and the whole of the Balkans'. The Turks, Grey said, would be 'paralysed with fear when they heard that the forts were being destroyed one by one'.
Fisher now changed his mind again, telling Churchill when the meeting was over that he would support the naval attack. 'When I finally decided to come in,' he told a commission of enquiry two years later, 'I went the whole hog, totus porcus.' It was hoped to begin the bombardment of the Dardanelles in mid-February, but delay in the arrival of the minesweepers led to a postponement. At that very moment Churchill's advisers began to argue that a military force was needed, to follow up the naval success by landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula. This had been Churchill's original idea. Asquith now favoured it, as did Hankey.
But where would troops be found? The one spare division of regular troops, the 29th, had already been earmarked for despatch to Salonica, to go to the aid of Serbia. At an emergency meeting of the War Council on February 16, it was learned that King Constantine of Greece, a relation of the Kaiser, refused to allow British troops to land on Greek soil. The 29th Division was therefore free to land at Gallipoli. The War Council approved this plan with alacrity.
The War Council of February 16 also agreed that the Australian and New Zealand troops then in Egypt, on their way to France, should be sent instead to the island of Lemnos, for service at Gallipoli. Churchill was instructed to arrange their transport. The Dardanelles was now a joint naval and military operation. 'You get through,' Kitchener told Churchill, 'I will find the men.' If the naval operations at the Dardanelles 'prosper', Churchill wrote to Kitchener, 'immense advantages may be offered which cannot be gathered without military aid'. At least 50,000 men should be within reach at three days' notice, 'either to seize the Gallipoli Peninsula when it has been evacuated, or to occupy Constantinople if a revolution takes place. We should never forgive ourselves if the naval operations succeeded & the fruits were lost through the army being absent.'
All seemed agreed; three days later, on the morning of February 19, Admiral Carden began the naval bombardment of the outer forts of the Dardanelles, the essential preliminary to forcing the Straits. That afternoon the War Council met to confirm the despatch of the 29th Division to the Eastern Mediterranean. But Kitchener now said that, with the news just arrived of a Russian setback in East Prussia, the 29th Division might soon be needed in France. The 30,000 Australian and New Zealand troops then in Egypt would be enough to support the naval attack at the Dardanelles.
Lloyd George, Asquith and Grey each argued with Kitchener that the 29th Division should be sent to the Eastern Mediterranean. No firm decision was reached. On the following morning Carden reported from the Dardanelles that although there had been no direct hits on the Turkish guns on February 19, the magazines of two of the forts had been blown up. Then gales and low visibility made firing impossible for four days.
***
At a dinner in the third week of February, following up the ideas he had expressed to Asquith at the start of the year, Churchill was impressed by a proposal put to him by Major Thomas Hetherington, who was attached to the Royal Naval Air Division at the Admiralty for experimental work, for a large cross-country armoured-car that would not only carry guns, but would surmount obstacles, trenches and barbed wire. Churchill had at once asked the Director of Naval Construction at the Admiralty, Captain Eustace Tennyson D'Eyncourt, to try to design such a 'land ship'. To mystify those who might accidentally see the designs, they were called 'water-carriers for Russia', but when it was pointed out that this might be abbreviated to 'WCs for Russia' the name was changed to 'water-tanks', then to 'tanks'.
On February 20 Churchill summoned an Admiralty conference to discuss the best methods of proceeding with the tank. As he was suffering from a bad attack of influenza, it was held in his bedroom. As a result of this meeting a Land Ship Committee was formed with D'Eyncourt as chairman. It held its first meeting two days later and submitted its proposals to Churchill, who accepted them with the comment, 'As proposed & with all despatch.' An order for the first tank was placed with a firm of agricultural engineers, who suggested using a tractor as the model for the new machine. Having obtained Asquith's approval for his experimental activities, Churchill gave the Committee £70,000 from Admiralty funds to pursue its development with as much speed as possible.
When the first designs were submitted to him on March 9, Churchill minuted, 'Press on.' Twelve days later D'Eyncourt asked if he could construct eighteen separate prototypes. Churchill approved: 'Most urgent,' he minuted, 'Special report to me in case of delay.' In its report after the war, the Royal Commission on War Inventions told Parliament that 'it was primarily due to the receptivity, courage and driving force' of Churchill that the idea of using the tank as an instrument of war 'was converted into a practical shape'.
***
With the Turkish option still dominating the War Council's discussions in the third week of February, Churchill continued to press Kitchener to send troops from Egypt to the Aegean. 'The operations at the Dardanelles may go much more rapidly than has been expected,' he wrote on February 20. In that case it would be 'vital' to have enough men to seal off the Peninsula at its narrowest point, the lines of Bulair. Four days later, however, Kitchener told the War Council that if the Fleet succeeded in silencing the forts at the Dardanelles, the Turkish garrison at Gallipoli 'would probably be withdrawn' rather than run the risk of being cut off.
Once more Churchill asked for the 29th Division to be sent to the Dardanelles. With a comparatively small number of troops, the 18,000 men of the 29th Division, 30,000 Australians then in Egypt, 8,500 men of the Royal Naval Division then on their way to the Eastern Mediterranean, and 18,000 French troops, 'we might,' he said, 'be in Constantinople by the end of March'. At the same time, if the naval attack was 'temporarily held up by mines', troops would be needed for 'some local military operation' on the Peninsula itself. But Kitchener had so low an opinion of Turkish troops that he told the War Council of February 24 that no troops at all would be needed; even before the Straits had been forced, indeed, as soon as it became clear that the forts at the Dardanelles were being 'silenced one by one', the Turkish garrison on the Peninsula would flee to Asia, while the garrison at Constantinople, the Sultan, and even the Turkish Army in Thrace 'would also decamp to the Asiatic shore'. Kitchener was adamant; the surrender of Turkey-in-Europe would be achieved by British naval guns alone. Troops were not needed.
So convinced was Kitchener that the Turks would abandon the Gallipoli Peninsula under the impact of naval gunnery alone that when Asquith asked him whether Australian and New Zealand troops 'were good enough' for such an important operation of war, he replied that 'they were quite good enough if a cruise in the Sea of Marmara was all that was contemplated'. Asquith tried in vain to persuade him to allow the 18,000 men of the 29th Division to be sent to the Dardanelles. 'One must take a lot of risks in war,' he explained to Venetia as soon as the War Council was over, '& I am strongly of the opinion that the chance of forcing the Dardanelles, & occupying Constantinople, & cutting Turkey in half, and arousing on our side the whole Balkan Peninsula, presents such a unique opportunity that we ought to hazard a lot elsewhere rather than forgo it.'
Despite Asquith's urging, Kitchener refused to release the 29th Division for the Dardanelles. Disappointed, Churchill returned to the Admiralty and telegraphed to Carden to confirm that he must force the Dardanelles 'without military assistance'. If the operation were successful, Churchill added, an ample military force would be available 'to reap the fruits'.
The naval bombardment was resumed on February 25, when all four outer forts were silenced. As Carden made plans to clear the minefields and destroy the intermediate forts early in March, a further appeal by Churchill, again for troops, was in vain; Kitchener told the War Council on February 26 that he would not release the 29th Division; the Turks were not a serious enemy; 'the whole situation in Constantinople would change the moment the Fleet had secured a passage through the Dardanelles'.
Kitchener's confidence in Turkish weakness was the decisive factor in all that followed. Once more, a bitter argument ensued. Hankey supported Churchill, insisting that troops would be needed 'to clear the Gallipoli Peninsula'. Lloyd George also supported Churchill, telling the War Council that he doubted whether victory would come as easily as Kitchener imagined. But Balfour and Grey supported Kitchener, Grey being particularly scathing about the Turks. Angrily, Churchill told the War Council, as its minutes recorded: 'The 29th Division would not make the difference between failure and success in France, but might well make the difference in the East. He wished it to be placed on record that he dissented altogether from the retention of the 29th Division in this country. If a disaster occurred in Turkey owing to the insufficiency of troops, he must disclaim all responsibility.'
Churchill's plea was in vain. 'We accepted K's view as to the immediate situation, to Winston's immense and unconcealed dudgeon,' Asquith wrote to Venetia. He also told her that he had been so angered by Churchill's mood at the War Council, which he described as 'noisy, rhetorical, tactless and temperless-or full', that he had taken the unusual step of calling him into his study to talk to him a little 'for his soul's good'. Realising that his sense of urgency was not widely shared, Churchill wrote that evening to his brother, who was serving in France: 'The capacity to run risks is at famine prices. All play for safety. The war is certainly settling on to a grim basis, & it is evident that long vistas of pain & struggle lie ahead. The limited fund of life & energy which I possess is not much use to influence these tremendous moments. I toil away.'
***
On February 28 Churchill learned from the Russian Commander-in-Chief, the Grand Duke Nicholas, that as soon as Carden's fleet had forced the Dardanelles, Russia would send 47,000 men to attack Constantinople from the Black Sea. Churchill's confidence revived. 'Should we get through the Dardanelles, as is now likely,' he told Grey, 'we cannot be content with anything less than the surrender of everything Turkish in Europe,' and he added: 'Remember Constantinople is only a means to an end-& the only end is the march of the Balkan States against the Central Powers.'
On March 1 there was further cause for British optimism when the Greeks offered to send 60,000 troops against Turkey. Suddenly the 29th Division did not seem so essential. 'Winston is breast high about the Dardanelles,' Asquith told Venetia. That day, in the wake of the naval bombardment, a small party of Royal Marines landed at the entrance to the Dardanelles and destroyed thirty Turkish artillery pieces, four machine-guns and two searchlights; they then returned safely to their ship. When, on March 3, the War Council discussed the capture of Constantinople and the future of Turkey, it was as if Carden had already reached the Sea of Marmara. There was general excitement at the thought of the Balkan States, in return for Turkish territory, turning their armies against Austria-Hungary. Churchill went so far as to suggest that Britain should 'hire the Turkish armies as mercenaries'.
Churchill had another reason for welcoming the military participation of the Balkan States, and even Turkish soldiers, against Austria. This would then free Britain's forces for what he believed was the true line of advance to victory. 'He was still of the opinion,' the War Council minutes recorded, 'that our proper line of strategy was an advance in the north through Holland and the Baltic.' The operations in the East 'should be regarded merely as an interlude'.
Churchill waited on tenterhooks for the naval attack. As he waited, the Russians, desperate to acquire Constantinople, announced that they would not allow Greek military participation in the campaign, in case the Greeks took over Constantinople. This was a blow, as was the news from Carden that Turkish mobile howitzers on the shore of the Dardanelles had forced the Queen Elizabeth to lengthen the range from which she was bombarding the intermediate forts. Nor had aerial reconnaissance been effective; engine trouble had prevented the seaplanes from flying high enough to spot the howitzers from the air.
The first attempt to force the Dardanelles would take place on March 18. Eight days earlier, to the amazement of everyone else at the War Council, Kitchener, two weeks after he had refused to release the 29th Division for the Dardanelles, announced that the situation on the Eastern Front was no longer dangerous and that the division could go. Carden, however, had reported that he was confident, once he had finished his destruction of the Turkish shore batteries, that clearing the minefields 'would only take a few hours'. He would then steam into the Sea of Marmara. Churchill told the War Council of March 10 that the Admiralty believed that this was possible 'by ships alone'. No troops would be needed. The naval attack could therefore go ahead without waiting for the 29th Division.
The prospect of success infected the War Council of March 10 so much that various territorial gains were discussed. Russia would be given Constantinople; Britain would take Alexandretta. Lloyd George wanted Britain to acquire Palestine. There was even talk of a defeated Germany being made to give up her African and Pacific possessions. Balfour spoke of neutralising the Kiel Canal. Kitchener wanted Britain to 'inflict an indemnity' on Germany to be paid 'over a long term of years'.
Since the outbreak of war, the Conservative Party leaders had been excluded from all war direction. Churchill, despite his long-standing quarrels with the Conservatives, and in particular with its leaders, felt that an all-Party coalition could help the evolution of war policy. At his suggestion, Bonar Law and Lansdowne had been invited to join the War Council discussion of March 10. 'The unexpected successful destruction of the outer forts of the Dardanelles,' Churchill later recalled, 'gave me a momentary ascendancy. I immediately returned to the Coalition plan; & persuaded the PM to invite the leaders of the opposition into council-ostensibly on the future destination of Constantinople, but really to broach the idea of bringing them into the circle.' But the meeting had not been a success in this regard. 'The opposition leaders sat silent & hungry & Mr Asquith did not press forward.'
On the morning of March 11, intercepted German wireless messages from the German officers attached to the Turkish Army revealed that the forts at the Dardanelles were seriously short of ammunition. New supplies would have to come from Germany, but could not arrive for some weeks. Learning this, Fisher was convinced that the moment had come to press home the attack on the Narrows without further delay. He even offered to leave London at once for the Dardanelles, and personally take command of the naval forces in Carden's place. He was persuaded to stay at his post.
With Fisher's approval Churchill now told Carden that whereas his original instructions 'laid stress on caution and deliberate methods', they wanted him now to feel 'quite free to press the attack vigorously', as Carden had himself suggested. The forts at the Narrows were to be his immediate objective. 'The turning of the corner at Chanak,' Churchill wrote, 'may decide the whole operation and produce consequences of a decisive character upon the war.'
On March 12 the newly appointed Commander of the military forces at the Dardanelles, General Sir Ian Hamilton, left London for the Eastern Mediterranean. Churchill, Hamilton's friend from South African days, arranged for him to travel by a fast cruiser from Marseilles. Before leaving Hamilton saw Maurice Hankey, who wrote in his diary: 'He is in an embarrassing position, as Churchill wants him to rush the Straits by a coup de main with such troops as are available in the Levant (30,000 Australians & 10,000 Naval Division). Lord K on the other hand wants him to go slow, to make the Navy continue pounding the Straits, & to wait for the 29th Division.'
Churchill wrote direct to Kitchener that day to ask if Hamilton could land as soon as possible on the Gallipoli Peninsula, to follow up any naval success and to protect the Navy from further Turkish shore fire. But Kitchener said no; the 29th Division must first arrive and be ready 'to take part in what is likely to prove a difficult undertaking in which severe fighting must be anticipated'. Suddenly, for Kitchener, the Turks were no longer the despised and easy adversary. 'I don't see how these concealed howitzers are to be tackled without storming the plateau,' Hamilton wrote to Churchill on March 14, on his way across France by train.
The decisive moment was imminent, yet still the information reaching Churchill made him uneasy. A signal from Carden told of 'unsatisfactory' minesweeping operations 'owing to heavy fire'. Carden added that there had been no casualties. 'I do not understand why minesweeping should be interfered with by fire which causes no casualties,' Churchill replied. 'Two or three hundred casualties would be a moderate price to pay for sweeping up as far as the Narrows.' It was known from intercepted radio messages that the Turks were running out of ammunition, and that the Germans were so worried about the situation that they were contemplating sending out a submarine. 'All this makes it clear that the operations should now be pressed forward methodically and resolutely by night and day, the unavoidable losses being accepted. The enemy is harassed and anxious now. Time is precious as the interference of submarines would be a serious complication.'
As an earnest of the Admiralty's keenness and sense of urgency, Fisher ordered two further battleships to the Dardanelles. On March 15 he and Hankey discussed how to make the minesweeping less hazardous by some form of smokescreen. It appeared from Carden's latest telegrams that the minesweepers were unable to carry out their task owing to fire from Turkish light guns which could not be located. It might be necessary to put naval units ashore to find and destroy these guns. Churchill appreciated the danger, telling Carden to act in concert with Hamilton 'in any military operations on a large scale which you consider necessary'. No time was to be lost 'but there should be no undue haste'. He did not want Carden to 'push the passage' prematurely. It might be found, he warned, 'that a naval rush would be costly, without decisive military action to take Kilid Bahr plateau'.
Carden decided not to wait for the Army. He would attack on March 18. Then, two days before the attack was due, he informed Churchill that he had been compelled to go on the sick list, and was giving up his command. He was succeeded by his second-in-command, Rear-Admiral John de Robeck. Churchill at once telegraphed to de Robeck, asking him if he was satisfied with the existing plans, 'If not, do not hesitate to say so.' In reply, de Robeck said that he was indeed satisfied, and would carry out Carden's plan to attack in two days' time.
At 10.45 on the morning of March 18 de Robeck launched the naval attack at the Dardanelles. With the aim of pushing past the Narrows and entering the Sea of Marmara, six British and four French battleships entered the Straits and pounded the intermediate forts. By 1.45 not one of the forts under attack was able to return fire. The time had come to withdraw the battleships and send in the minesweepers. As the French battleship Bouvet was leaving the Straits it hit a mine, in an area away from the main minefield, and sank. More than six hundred sailors were drowned.
De Robeck continued the action. Orders were given to sweep the minefields in Kephez Bay, and to move forward before dusk to Chanak itself. But the mines had not yet finished their work of destruction. Shortly after four o'clock the British battleship Inflexible struck a mine, then a second battleship, Irresistible, began to list, and could not move. De Robeck ordered an immediate halt to the action. Then, while covering the rescue of men from Irresistible, a third battleship, Ocean, struck a mine.
Despite the loss of three battleships, the British casualties had been light; fifty sailors killed and twenty-three wounded during the day's action. But the minefields had not been swept, and the Turkish mobile guns had kept up their fire from both shores. Churchill and Fisher learned of the setback on the morning of March 19. Both were convinced that de Robeck would make a second attack soon; 'De Robeck really better than Carden,' Fisher wrote to Churchill later that day, 'so Providence is with us.' An enthusiast for action, Fisher now ordered two more battleships to reinforce de Robeck's squadron. A loss of up to twelve battleships would have to be expected, he told the War Council that day. The Council authorised de Robeck to continue the naval attack 'if he thought fit'. Ministers then discussed the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Grey wanted to see independent Arab States set up in Syria, Arabia and Mesopotamia. Kitchener wanted Mecca, the centre of the Islamic world, to be under British control.
On March 19 de Robeck telegraphed to Churchill that his squadron was ready 'for immediate action', but means must first be found to deal with the floating mines. He expected them to be 'easily dealt with'. But on March 20 the weather was bad, making impossible the necessary practice 'essential to ensure success'. Then de Robeck changed his mind, telling Hamilton on March 22 that before he could try again to send his ships through the Narrows, the Army must go ashore and demolish the forts. Hamilton was delighted to be asked to help, but pointed out that his orders from Kitchener were to await the arrival of the 29th Division from England. That would not be for another three to four weeks.
De Robeck's telegram announcing that he was suspending the naval attack reached London on the morning of March 23. 'It appears better to prepare a decisive effort about the middle of April,' he wrote, 'rather than risk a great deal for what may possibly be only a partial solution.' Churchill at once drafted a telegram urging de Robeck to try once more with ships alone 'at the first favourable opportunity'. He should 'dominate the forts at the Narrows and sweep the minefield and then batter the forts at close range, taking your time, using your aeroplanes and all your improved methods of guarding against mines'. Intending his telegram to come from all five members of his Admiralty War Group, Churchill ended it with the words, 'We do not think that the time has yet come to give up the plan of forcing Dardanelles by a purely naval operation.' He then went to Downing Street to show the telegram to the Cabinet. Both Asquith and Kitchener thought de Robeck should press on. 'The Admiral seems to be in rather a funk,' Asquith told Venetia. 'I agree with Winston & K that the Navy ought to make another big push, as soon as the weather clears.'
Churchill returned to the Admiralty, where he found that of the five members of the War Group, the three most senior, Fisher and the other two Admirals on the Group, not only supported de Robeck's wish to renew the attack only in conjunction with the Army, but wanted the telegram to be held back. Churchill returned to Downing Street, to obtain Asquith's authority for the telegram to be sent. But despite his personal agreement with the telegram and support for a renewed naval attack, Asquith was unwilling to overrule Churchill's three most senior advisers.
Momentarily, Churchill contemplated resignation. 'If by resigning I could have procured the decision,' he later wrote, 'I would have done so without a moment's hesitation.' Instead, he sent a personal and secret telegram to de Robeck, asking him to think again, but leaving the decision entirely to the Admiral. It seemed 'very probable', Churchill argued, 'that as soon as it is apparent that the fortresses at the Narrows are not going to stop the Fleet, a general evacuation of the peninsula will take place; but anyhow all troops remaining upon it would be doomed to starvation or surrender. Besides this, there is the political effect of the arrival of the Fleet before Constantinople which is incalculable, and may well be absolutely decisive.' De Robeck would not change his mind. 'To attack Narrows now with fleet would be a mistake,' he replied, 'as it would jeopardise the execution of a better and bigger scheme.' A combined naval and military operation was 'essential' to success.
That night Churchill dined with Asquith. 'The Prime Minister seemed disappointed last night,' he told Fisher on the following morning, 'that we had not sent de Robeck a definite order to go on with his attack at the first opportunity.' But from his brother Jack, who had left the Western Front to join Sir Ian Hamilton's staff, came confirmation that the attack by ships alone would not be renewed. 'The sailors are now inclined to acknowledge that they cannot get through without the co-operation of troops,' Jack wrote on March 25. 'Long range fire on forts is no good unless infantry occupy the forts afterwards and maintain themselves there. Stronger minesweepers are needed against the current. Half the targets are concealed and the ships have the greatest difficulty in locating and firing at the mobile guns.' The aeroplane spotting was 'very bad', as the spotters had little experience.
De Robeck now waited until the assembled Army was ready to attack, when he would help it with his supporting fire. During the military landings which Kitchener planned for April, and during the subsequent nine months of fighting on the Gallipoli Peninsula, the Navy never attempted to push through the Narrows. Every decision for action subsequently taken at Gallipoli was taken by Kitchener, or by Hamilton and his commanders.
Churchill had become a spectator of events which he had once hoped to dominate and control. Without there having been a naval disaster, without any of the harsh slaughter that had become commonplace on the Western Front, without any conclusive sign that a naval success was impossible, he had been forced to abandon a project that could have knocked Turkey out of the war, rallied the Balkan States against the Central Powers, given Russia a supply lifeline whereby to renew her own offensive in the East, and ended the stalemate in France and Flanders.
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