Ministers were indeed uneasy; on November 25 Hoare told the Cabinet that it was 'most important to show the world that the Government had just as much as, and more information than Mr Churchill'. At Hoare's suggestion it was agreed that Baldwin should accuse Churchill of exaggeration. But at a further Cabinet meeting on November 26 the Air Staff urged that, in order to meet German expansion plans, the new British air programme should be accelerated, so that all the aeroplanes involved in the existing British scheme would be completed by the end of 1936, instead of 1939.
Churchill's speech of November 28 marked a climax in his campaign for a more active Government policy towards air defence. 'To urge preparation of defence,' he began, 'is not to assert the imminence of war. On the contrary, if war was imminent preparations for defence would be too late.' War was neither imminent nor inevitable, but unless Britain took immediate steps to make herself secure 'it will soon be beyond our power to do so'. In violation of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was building up a powerful, well-equipped army, 'though little is said about it in public', with factory production geared increasingly to war material. German air rearmament posed the greatest danger. 'However calmly surveyed, the danger of an attack from the air must appear most formidable.'
He did not wish to exaggerate, Churchill said, or to accept 'the sweeping claims' being put forward by alarmists. Nevertheless, he believed, in a week or ten days' intensive bombing of London one could hardly expect 'that less than 30,000 or 40,000 people would be killed or maimed', and with the use of incendiary bombs the situation could be even worse.[1] As a result of 'such a dreadful act of power and terror', in which bombs could go through a series of floors 'igniting each one simultaneously', as he had been assured 'by persons who are acquainted with the science', grave panic would affect the civilian population, three or four million of whom would be 'driven out into the open country'.
Churchill warned that it was not London alone that would be at risk from aerial bombardment; Birmingham, Sheffield and 'the great manufacturing towns' would likewise be the targets of bombing raids in the event of war. All dockyards and oil storage depots would be at risk. It was therefore essential to devise means to 'mitigate and minimise' the effects of such attacks. Merely to disperse industries would not be enough. 'The flying peril is not a peril from which one can fly. It is necessary to face it where we stand. We cannot possibly retreat. We cannot move London. We cannot move the vast population which is dependent on the estuary of the Thames.'
Churchill begged the Government not to neglect 'the scientific side of defence against aircraft attack'. He had already heard 'many suggestions' that ought to be explored 'with all the force of the Government behind the examination'. He continued, 'I hope that there will be no danger of service routine or prejudices, or anything like that, preventing new ideas from being studied, and that they will not be hampered by long delays such as we suffered in the case of the tanks and other new ideas during the Great War.'
There was another aspect to the question of defence which must not be overlooked. The 'only direct measure of defence on a great scale', Churchill argued, was to possess the power to inflict 'simultaneously upon the enemy' as much damage as he himself could inflict. For this reason he thought it necessary to double or even treble the money being spent on Air Force expansion. Complete air mastery by one power over another would lead to the 'absolute subjugation' of the weaker power, which would have 'no opportunity of recovery'. That was 'the odious new factor which has been forced upon our life in this twentieth century of Christian civilisation.'
Churchill again proposed, as he had done in May, 'that we ought to decide now to maintain at all costs in the next ten years an Air Force substantially stronger than that of Germany, and that it should be considered a high crime against the state, whatever Government is in power, if that force is allowed to fall substantially below, even for a month, the potential force which may be possessed by that country abroad.'
Germany's illegal Air Force was 'rapidly approaching equality with our own that, Churchill pointed out, was the known fact, 'but beyond the known there is also the unknown. We hear from all sides of an air development in Germany far in excess of anything which I have stated today. As to that all I would say is "Beware!" Germany is a country fertile in military surprises.' Churchill then spoke of the crucial element of productive capacity. It sounded 'absurd to talk about 10,000 aeroplanes,' he said, 'but, after all, the resources of mass production are very great, and I remember when the War came to an end the organisation over which I presided at the Ministry of Munitions was actually making aeroplanes at the rate of 24,000 a year and planning a very much larger programme for 1919. Of course, such numbers of aeroplanes could never be placed in the air at any one moment, nor a tenth of them, but the figures give one an idea of the scale to which manufacture might easily rise if long preparations have been made beforehand and a great programme of production is launched.'
Churchill reminded the House that during the Air debate in March, Baldwin had said, 'If you are not satisfied, you can go to a Division.' But what was the point, Churchill asked, in dividing the House and calling for votes. 'You might walk a majority round and round these lobbies for a year and not alter the facts by which we are confronted.' Although the Government had announced in July that forty-two new squadrons would be added to the Air Force by 1939, the programme was such, Churchill pointed out, that only fifty new machines would be in full service by March 1936. Despite the details of rapidly growing German air strength which had emerged since July, this programme had not been accelerated. Were this 'dilatory process' to continue even for only a few months, it would deprive Britain of the power 'ever to overtake the German air effort'.
When Churchill sat down, Frances Stevenson noted, he had 'almost an ovation'. In his reply, Baldwin told the House that he had not 'given up hope either for the limitation or for the restriction of some kind of arms'. But it was 'extraordinarily difficult' to give accurate figures of German air strength; it was 'a dark continent' from that point of view, but it was 'not the case' that the German Air Force was 'rapidly approaching equality with us'. The German air strength was in fact 'not 50 per cent' of the British. By the end of 1935 Britain would still have 'a margin of nearly 50 per cent' in Europe. There was therefore 'no ground at this moment for undue alarm and still less for panic. There is no immediate menace confronting us or anyone in Europe at this moment-no actual emergency.'
Baldwin then answered Churchill in words that the Cabinet had agreed he should use: 'I cannot look further forward than the next two years. My right hon friend speaks of what may happen in 1937. Such investigations as I have been able to make lead me to believe that his figures are considerably exaggerated.' Baldwin then repeated the parity pledge, telling the House: 'His Majesty's Government are determined in no condition to accept any position of inferiority with regard to what air force may be raised in Germany in the future.'
Accepting Baldwin's pledge at its face value, Churchill withdrew his amendment. The House then divided on the Labour amendment criticising the existing rearmament plans as excessive; this was defeated by 276 votes to 35. On November 29 Morton wrote to Churchill: 'Your magnificent exposition of the situation last night has undoubtedly gone far to achieve the object in view. At any rate we have a declaration from SB that this Government is pledged not to allow the strength of the British Air Force to fall below that of Germany.' But Morton added that the actual figures available to Baldwin showed that he already knew that Britain had lost its 50 per cent superiority. Commenting on the debate in a letter to the Viceroy, Hoare admitted that if the Cabinet had decided to 'let the Departmental Ministers answer him upon technical service questions', Churchill 'would have scored heavily'.
***
On the night of November 29 Randolph gave his father a dinner dance at the Ritz to celebrate his sixtieth birthday. Churchill's energies were indefatigable; on December 12, in an attempt to get the Government to agree to more time to debate the India Bill on the grounds that self-government 'only means liberty for one set of Indians to exploit another', he was supported by seventy-five Conservative MPs. The Government, however, obtained a majority of 283. In January 1935 he made one last effort to moderate the India Bill, proposing to limit Indian autonomy, for some years to come, to the Provincial Assemblies, on the lines of the Simon Report. But neither a broadcast on 29 January 1935, nor his support for his son's anti-India Bill candidacy at a by-election, were to any avail. Indeed, when Randolph, by splitting the Conservative vote, enabled the Labour Party candidate to win the seat, there was fierce anger in Conservative newspapers at the 'wrecking activities', not of one but now of two Churchills.
On February 11, at the close of the second reading of the India Bill, Churchill warned that to give India self-government at the centre would enable a small group of politically motivated men to trample on the rights of millions of inarticulate and ill-represented minorities. Those MPs who would speak against the Bill, he said, hoped 'to kill the idea that the British in India are aliens moving out of the country as soon as they have been able to set up any kind of governing organism to take their place'. They wished to establish the idea that the British were in India 'forever', as 'honoured partners with our Indian fellow-subjects whom we invite in all faithfulness to join with us in the highest functions of Government and administration for their lasting benefit and for our own'.
There were cheers at the end of Churchill's speech. But after Baldwin had promised that 'the rule of law and order' which Britain had established would 'go on' under Indian supervision, the Bill passed its second reading by 404 votes to 133. Among those voting against the Government were 84 Conservatives.
On February 25, while the India Bill was still under scrutiny in Committee, the Indian Princes, meeting in Bombay, passed a resolution expressing strong dissatisfaction with the Federal scheme. This caused commotion in Whitehall; the Government had relied on the Princes' co-operation for the Bill to have a smooth passage. On February 26, encouraged by the Princes' decision, Churchill argued that it had become useless to proceed with the Bill; but Hoare insisted that the Princes must accept the scheme as it stood. The issue was put to the vote and Churchill's motion defeated by 283 to 89. This was the largest opposition he and the India Defence League were able to muster in the Commons.
'The India Bill is now in Committee and I am in the House all day long two or three days a week speaking three or four times a day,' Churchill wrote to Clementine on March 2. 'I have been making short speeches of five, ten and fifteen minutes, sometimes half an hour, always without notes, and I have I think got the House fairly subordinate. I am acquiring a freedom and facility I never before possessed, and I seem to be able to hold my own and indeed knock the Government about to almost any extent. The Government supporters are cowed, resentful and sullen. They keep 250 waiting about in the libraries and smoking rooms to vote us down on every amendment, and we have a fighting force of about fifty which holds together with increasing loyalty and conviction. I have led the opposition with considerable success so far as the debates are concerned. The divisions go the other way, but we mock at them for being lackeys and slaves.'
Churchill then told Clementine of his lack of confidence in the Government itself, and in particular of his despair at the behaviour of its leaders: 'The Government stock is very low. They are like a great iceberg which has drifted into warm seas and whose base is being swiftly melted away, so that it must topple over. They are a really bad government in spite of their able members. The reason is there is no head and commanding mind ranging over the whole field of public affairs. You cannot run the British Cabinet system without an effective Prime Minister. The wretched Ramsay is almost a mental case-"he'd be far better off in a Home". Baldwin is crafty, patient and also amazingly lazy, sterile and inefficient where public business is concerned. Almost wherever they put their foot they blunder. Cabinet Ministers can only hold a meeting in any part of the country with elaborate police arrangements and party caucus arrangements to secure them an uninterrupted hearing. It is quite certain that things cannot last. Lloyd George of course would like to come in and join them and reconstitute a kind of War Cabinet Government, in which I daresay I should be offered a place. But I am very disinclined to associate myself with any administration this side of a General Election.'
When the India Bill finally passed, Churchill was visited at Chartwell by G.D. Birla, one of Gandhi's close friends, who wrote to the Mahatma about Churchill's interest and friendliness. 'Tell Mr Gandhi to use the powers that are offered and make the thing a success,' was Churchill's message. He had 'all along felt that there were fifty Indias' and that only Britain was able to hold the balance between them, at least for a long time to come, and he added, with his usual magnanimity, 'But you have got the thing now; make it a success and if you do I will advocate your getting much more.'
***
On March 4 the Government published a new Defence White Paper, in which it admitted 'serious deficiencies' in the three Defence services. Defence expenditure was to be increased by £10 million. Four days later, in a letter to Clementine, Churchill wrote that the Government, 'tardily, timidly and inadequately have at last woken up to the rapidly increasing German peril'. He added: 'The German situation is increasingly sombre. Owing to the Government having said that their increase of ten million in armaments is due to Germany rearming, Hitler flew into a violent rage and refused to receive Simon, who was about to visit him in Berlin. Hitler alleged he had a cold but this was an obvious pretext. This gesture of spurning the British Foreign Secretary from the gates of Berlin is a significant measure of the conviction which Hitler has of the strength of the German Air Force and Army.'
Churchill added: 'Owing to the severity of their counter-espionage (you saw they beheaded two women with mediaeval gruesomeness last week) it is very difficult to know exactly what they have prepared, but that danger gathers apace is indisputable. All the frightened nations are at last beginning to huddle together. We are sending Anthony Eden to Moscow and I cannot disapprove. The Russians, like the French and ourselves, want to be let alone and the nations who want to be let alone to live in peace must join together for mutual security. There is safety in numbers. There is only safety in numbers. If the Great War were resumed-for that is what it would mean in two or three years' time or even earlier-it will be the end of the world. How I hope and pray we may be spared such senseless horrors.'
On March 16 Hitler announced the reintroduction of compulsory military service throughout Germany. As a result of this decision, the permitted army of 300,000 could be doubled or even trebled without difficulty. Indeed, Hitler declared, he already had 500,000 men under arms. On March 19, during the Air debate in the House of Commons, Philip Sassoon announced a further increase of just over forty squadrons in the next four years. He also declared, 'A great many inaccurate figures have been bandied about and an unduly black picture has been painted of our weakness in the air.' Nevertheless, he added, 'our numerical weakness is serious and cannot be allowed to continue'.
Of Baldwin's pledge of November 1934, Sassoon stated: 'We thought we might have at the end of this year, as the Lord President said, a 50 per cent superiority over Germany. From that point of view the situation has deteriorated. There has been a great acceleration, as far as we know, in the manufacture of aircraft in Germany, but still, in spite of that, at the end of this year we shall have a margin, though I do not say a margin of 50 per cent.'
During the debate, Churchill again raised the question of the relative air strength of Britain and Germany. Baldwin had stated three and a half months earlier that Germany's 'real strength' in the air was less than 50 per cent of Britain's. This statement, Churchill pointed out, was now admitted to have been untrue; Baldwin had been 'misled' in the figures he had given to the House. The Government's present figures showed the two Air Forces 'virtually on an equality, neck and neck'. Churchill expressed his grave concern at these admissions, telling the House: 'I am certain that Germany's preparations are infinitely more far-reaching than our own. So that you have not only equality at the moment, but the great output which I have described, and you have behind that this enormous power to turn over, on the outbreak of war, the whole force of German industry.'
Churchill was afraid that the time had already passed when relatively easy steps could have been taken to give Britain a secure margin of air superiority: 'If the necessary preparations had been made two years ago when the danger was clear and apparent, the last year would have seen a substantial advance, and this year would have seen a very great advance. Even at this time last year, if a resolve had been taken, as I urged, to double and redouble the British Air Force as soon as possible-Sir Herbert Samuel described me as a Malay run amok because I made such a suggestion-very much better results would have been yielded in 1935, and we should not find ourselves in our present extremely dangerous position.'
Commenting on Sassoon's earlier statement that 151 aircraft would be added to the British front line during the coming year, Churchill pointed out that the Germans were adding at least 100 or 150 a month, machines which 'are being turned into squadrons for which long trained, ardent personnel are already assembled', and aerodromes prepared. 'Therefore, at the end of this year, when we were to have had a 50 per cent superiority over Germany, they will be at least, between three and four times as strong as we.' 'Britain', he added, had 'lost air parity already both in the number of machines and in their quality'. He continued: 'Everyone sees now that we have entered a period of peril. From being the least vulnerable of all nations we have, through developments in the air, become the most vulnerable, and yet, even now, we are not taking the measures which would be in true proportion to our needs.'
Following Churchill's speech a Labour MP, William Cove, spoke scathingly of 'the scaremongering speech of the rt hon Member for Epping who endeavoured to make our flesh creep'. But on March 25, within a week of the Air debate, Hitler told Sir John Simon, who had at last been received in Berlin, and Anthony Eden, that Germany 'had reached parity with Great Britain' as far as their respective Air Forces were concerned. Churchill wrote on the following day to Clementine: 'The political sensation of course is the statement by Hitler that his Air Force is already as strong as ours. This completely stultifies everything that Baldwin has said and incidentally vindicates all the assertions that I have made. I expect in fact he is really much stronger than we are. Certainly they will soon be at least two times greater than we are so that Baldwin's terms that we should not be less than any other country are going to be falsified. Fancy if our Liberal Government had let the country down in this way before the Great War! I hope to press this matter hard in the next month and a good many of those who have opposed me on India now promise support on this.'
Churchill now received help from an unexpected quarter; on April 7 the head of the Central Department at the Foreign Office, Ralph Wigram, came to Chartwell with information showing that the German aircraft factories 'are already practically organised on an emergency war-time footing'. Wigram had been helped in compiling this information by a junior member of his department, Michael Creswell, who shared his concerns. A week after his visit to Chartwell, Wigram sent Churchill the Government's own most recent, and secret, figures, which showed that the minimum German first-line air strength had reached 800 aircraft, as against Britain's 453. When he had first seen these figures, Wigram had noted in an internal minute, 'These are grave and terrible facts for those who are charged with the defence of this country.'
Churchill later wrote of Wigram: 'He was a charming and fearless man, and his convictions, based upon profound knowledge and study, dominated his being. He saw as clearly as I did, but with more certain information, the awful peril which was closing in upon us. This drew us together. Often we met at his little house in North Street, and he and Mrs Wigram came to stay with us at Chartwell. Like other officials of high rank, he spoke to me with complete confidence.'
On April 13 Churchill wrote to Clementine: 'The only great thing that has happened has been that Germany is now the greatest armed power in Europe. But I think the Allies are all banking up against her, and then I hope she will be kept in her place and not attempt to plunge into a terrible conflict.' He added: 'My statements about the air last November are being proved true, and Baldwin's contradictions are completely falsified. There is no doubt that the Germans are already substantially superior to us in the air, and that they are manufacturing at such a rate that we cannot catch them up. How discreditable for the Government to have been misled, and to have misled Parliament upon a matter involving the safety of the country.'
On May 2, France and the Soviet Union signed a pact of mutual co-operation. It seemed that Churchill's vision of a union of 'the nations who want to be let alone' was coming to pass. 'Never must we despair,' he told the Commons that day, 'never must we give in, but we must face facts and draw true conclusions from them.' On the following day the Daily Express apologised to Churchill for having in the past 'ignored' his warnings of German air strength; an apology put in front of its 1,857,939 readers. Then, on May 22, during a Defence debate in the Commons, Baldwin admitted he had been 'completely wrong' the previous November in his estimate of future German air strength.
Churchill's claims of the pace and scale of German air construction, hitherto mocked as alarmist, were vindicated. He at once proposed a Secret Session of the House, as in 1917, for an unfettered discussion of German air strength and British air policy, but Baldwin refused. 'Speech successful,' Churchill telegraphed to Randolph after the debate, 'but Government escaped as usual.' Nine days later, on May 31, he drew the attention of the House of Commons to the Nazi-type movement which had been created among the German-speaking inhabitants of the Sudeten mountain region of Czechoslovakia. As a result of Germany's growing power, he warned, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and even Yugoslavia were beginning to look with admiration at Germany. When the debate was over Morton wrote to Churchill, 'You alone seem to have galvanised the House.'
On June 5 Ramsay MacDonald presided over his last Cabinet; he was ill and unable to continue in office. Baldwin succeeded him as Prime Minister; Hoare became Foreign Secretary; Neville Chamberlain remained at the Exchequer.
Churchill's friends and supporters were disappointed that no place had been found for him in the new Baldwin administration. 'I have been hoping that you were going to be Minister of Defence,' wrote his former flying-instructor, Spenser Grey. 'I really thought they were going to have one & could see no one else with the necessary experience.' On the day the new Cabinet was announced, Churchill spoke in the Commons about his dissatisfaction at the slow pace of research into air defence. The recently established Government Air Defence Research Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence had only met twice in the past three months. 'Really the whole story is another slow-motion picture.'
On July 11, in his first speech as Foreign Secretary, Samuel Hoare made an extraordinary reference to Churchill when he spoke of those who 'seem to take a morbid delight in alarms and excursions, in a psychology, shall I say, of fear, perhaps even of brutality', and went on, in scathing tone: 'Only yesterday I heard of a small child, a child of one of my friends, who was found surrounded by a number of air balloons, and her nurse said to her, "Why is it that you have so many air balloons?" The child answered, "I like to make myself afraid by popping." That may be a harmless habit in the case of a child, but it is a dangerous habit in the case of the many alarm-mongers and scaremongers who now seem to take this delight in creating crises, and, if there be crises, in making the crises worse than they otherwise would be.'
Two weeks after Hoare's remarks, Baldwin invited Churchill to become, like Lindemann, a member of the Air Defence Research Sub-Committee. Churchill accepted; he attended his first meeting on July 25. There, he learned of the success, on the previous day, of a series of experiments for locating enemy aircraft by radio-location, later known as radar.
The dangers of war seemed to grow with every passing month. In August, Mussolini threatened to invade Abyssinia. In a private talk with Churchill, Hoare found him 'deeply incensed' at the Italian action, and pressing for the immediate reinforcement of Britain's Mediterranean Fleet. Churchill argued that collective action was needed against Italy, including economic sanctions. The League of Nations should be called upon to act. The Navy should be made ready for whatever action might be necessary. 'Where are the fleets?' he asked Hoare. 'Are they in good order? Are they adequate? Are they capable of rapid and complete concentration? Are they safe? Have they been formally warned to take precautions?'
That September Churchill received words of encouragement from the editor of the Observer, J.L. Garvin: 'On India you couldn't have more than ¼ of the Unionist party with you. On Defence you can have ¾ of it at least with you for good, and change all-by stating the case as you alone can state it. I see no other hope.'
Churchill was on holiday in the South of France, painting at Maxine Elliott's château near Cannes when Garvin's letter reached him. European affairs were much on his mind; another guest at the château, Vincent Sheean, later recalled Churchill's hope that if the League of Nations could make sanctions against Mussolini's Italy work '& stop the Abyssinian subjugation, we should all be stronger and safer for many a long day'. Sheean noted: 'He had a distinction which he tried to bring out in every talk about Ethiopia just then: it seemed to him very important. "It's not the thing we object to", he would say, "it's the kind of thing". I had not then succumbed as much to his genial charm as I did later, and I could not quite accept this. I mentioned the Red Sea, the route to India, the importance of Aden. Mr Churchill brushed all that aside: "We don't need to worry about the Italians", he said. "It isn't that at all. It isn't the thing. It's the kind of thing."'
When a French woman present protested that every nation including Britain had conquered territory as Italy now threatened to do, Churchill remarked with a benevolent smile across the luncheon table, 'Ah, but you see, all that belongs to the unregenerate past, is locked away in the limbo of the old, the wicked days.' The world had progressed. The aim of the League of Nations was 'to make it impossible for nations nowadays to infringe upon each other's rights'. In trying to conquer Abyssinia, 'Mussolini is making a most dangerous and foolhardy attack upon the whole established structure, and the results of such an attack are quite incalculable. Who is to say what will come of it in a year, or two, or three? With Germany arming at breakneck speed, England lost in a pacifist dream, France corrupt and torn by dissension, America remote and indifferent-Madame, my dear lady, do you not tremble for your children?'
On his return to Chartwell at the end of September, Churchill began to correspond with Admiral Chatfield, the First Sea Lord, hoping that a show of British naval strength in the Mediterranean might deter Mussolini. In London he addressed Conservative businessmen on the need to warn Italy against aggression in Abyssinia. He also spoke of the growth of German rearmament, and of Britain's failure to take measures to match it. 'There ought to be a few members of the House of Commons,' he said, 'who are in a sufficiently independent position to confront both Ministers and electors with unpalatable truths. We do not wish our ancient freedom and the decent tolerant civilisation we have preserved in this island to hang upon a rotten thread.'
This speech was widely reported; after it the poet Osbert Sitwell, one of Churchill's public critics at the time of the anti-Bolshevik intervention in 1919, wrote to apologise 'for my stupidity in the past' and to say that he spoke 'for numberless people'. Two days later Churchill saw the Italian Ambassador, Count Grandi, whom he warned about the dangers of invading Abyssinia; from the Foreign Office, Sir Robert Vansittart thanked him for speaking as he had. At dinner with Vansittart and Alfred Duff Cooper, the Financial Secretary to the Treasury, Churchill expressed his willingness to go with them both to Rome, to try to persuade Mussolini not to launch his attack. 'Nothing came of this,' he later wrote, 'and I doubt very much whether we could have enlightened him. He was convinced that Britain was rotten to the core.'
Mussolini launched his attack on Abyssinia on October 4. That day, at the Conservative Party Conference in Bournemouth, Churchill moved an amendment urging the Government to organise British industry 'for speedy conversion to defence purposes' and to make a 'renewed effort' to establish air parity with Germany. His amendment was carried unanimously. Eight days later he offered his services to Conservative Central Office during the General Election which had been called for mid-November. His offer was accepted. In the Commons he continued to press for increased armaments and for the development of a machine-tool industry capable of greater expansion. The Italian attack on Abyssinia was 'a very small matter', he said, compared with the German danger. There could be no anxieties 'comparable to the anxiety caused by German rearmament. We cannot afford to see Nazidom in all its present phase of cruelty and intolerance, with all its hatreds and its gleaming weapons, paramount in Europe.'
The German Government protested against Churchill's speech, as it did about an article on Hitler which he published in the Strand Magazine, in which he wrote of how, 'side by side with training grounds of the new armies and the great aerodromes, the concentration camps pock-mark the German soil. In these, thousands of Germans are coerced and cowed into submission to the irresistible power of the Totalitarian State'. He also wrote of the 'brutal vigour' of the persecution of the Jews. 'No past services, no proved patriotism, even wounds sustained in war, could procure immunity for persons whose only crime was that their parents had brought them into the world.' Even the 'wretched Jewish children' were persecuted in the national schools. The world still hoped that the worst might be over, 'and that we may yet live to see Hitler a gentler figure in a happier age'. Yet even as Hitler spoke words of reassurance from Berlin, 'the great wheels revolve; the rifles, the cannon, the tanks, the shot and shell, the air-bombs, the poison-gas cylinders, the aeroplanes, the submarines, and now the beginnings of a fleet, flow in ever-broadening streams from the already largely war-mobilised arsenals and factories of Germany.'
***
Parliament was dissolved on October 25 and the General Election set for November 14. Many believed that after the election Baldwin would bring Churchill into the Cabinet. From the British Naval Attaché in Berlin, Captain Gerald Muirhead-Gould, came the message: 'The Germans fear, and I hope, you will be 1st Lord-or Minister of Defence! Please don't give me away.' On October 31 the British Ambassador to Berlin, Sir Eric Phipps, reported that Hitler himself had expressed concern that Churchill might become 'Minister of the British Navy'.
On October 31, as the election campaign gathered momentum, Baldwin declared, 'I give you my word there will be no great armaments.' Churchill, by contrast, in urging greater rearmament, wrote in the Daily Mail on November 12, 'I do not feel that people realise at all how near and how grave are the dangers of a world explosion.' Ralph Wigram, his friend in the Foreign Office, had just sent him copies of the secret despatches from the British Ambassador in Berlin, which the Cabinet also saw, forecasting Hitler's future territorial demands.
The General Election was an overwhelming victory for the Conservatives, who secured 432 seats as against 151 for Labour, and a mere 21 for the Liberals. Randolph was defeated. Churchill, who held his own seat with an increased majority, watched the first results on a screen set up in the Albert Hall. To see the rest of the results come in, he went to Stornoway House, Beaverbrook's house in St James's, where, to his consternation, Beaverbrook greeted him with the words: 'Well, you're finished now. Baldwin has so good a majority that he will be able to do without you.'
Churchill had hoped his breach with Baldwin was over, and that the acceptance of his help during the election had been a signal of political reconciliation. For six days he waited at Chartwell for a telephone call from the Prime Minister. None came; when the first list of Ministers was published, Churchill's name was not on it. 'This was to me a pang and, in a way, an insult,' he later wrote. 'There was much mockery in the press. I do not pretend that, thirsting to get on the move, I was not distressed.' Baldwin's entourage were much pleased, Thomas Jones praising his master for having 'kept clear of Winston's enthusiasm for ships and guns'. In a letter to Davidson, Baldwin himself wrote: 'I feel we should not give him a post at this stage. Anything he undertakes he puts his heart and soul into. If there is going to be war-and no one can say that there is not-we must keep him fresh to be our war Prime Minister.'
Bruised and frustrated, Churchill decided on a long working and painting holiday, first in Majorca and then in Morocco. He postponed his departure for three days in order to attend a meeting of the Air Defence Research Sub-Committee, at which he spoke vehemently, and with copious detail, about Britain's inferiority in the air and in anti-aircraft preparations. Then, on December 10, he and Clementine left London by air for Paris. He was sixty-one years old. It was now five and a half years since he had been a Cabinet Minister.
Churchill and Clementine travelled by train from Paris to Barcelona. There, having been joined by Lindemann, they took the boat to Majorca. As they travelled, a startling diplomatic event took place in Paris; Samuel Hoare reached a provisional agreement with the French Foreign Minister, Pierre Laval, whereby Mussolini would be allowed to retain his conquests in Abyssinia, almost 20 per cent of Abyssinian territory, in return for halting the war which his troops were finding it easier and easier to win. At a stroke, the League of Nations had been flouted, collective security abandoned, and sanctions spurned. So great was public indignation in Britain that on December 18, after ten days of outcry, the British Cabinet renounced the 'Hoare-Laval Pact'. Hoare resigned and was succeeded as Foreign Secretary by Eden.
Clementine returned to England to spend Christmas at Blenheim; Churchill spent the festive season at Tangier. 'Eden's appointment does not inspire me with confidence,' he wrote to Clementine on December 26. 'I expect the greatness of his office will find him out.' Churchill ended his letter, 'Your wandering, sun-seeking, rotten, disconsolate W.'
Hoping that some Cabinet post might still be found for him, Churchill also wrote that day to Randolph, who was now a successful journalist: 'It would in my belief be very injurious to me at this juncture if you publish articles attacking the motives & characters of Ministers, especially Baldwin & Eden.' If he were to ignore this advice, 'I shall not be able to feel confidence in your loyalty & affection for me'.
Churchill travelled on to Marrakech, where, on December 30, he spent several hours in the company of an even more disconsolate Lloyd George, who had been out of public office for thirteen years. 'What a fool Baldwin is, with this terrible situation on his hands, not to gather his resources & experience to the public service,' Churchill wrote to Clementine that day. In this letter he also wrote with anguish of 'our defences neglected, our Government less capable a machine for conducting affairs than I have ever seen', and he added, 'The Baldwin-MacDonald regime has hit this country very hard indeed, and may well be the end of its glories.'
Reflecting on the confident spread of dictatorship and the feeble response of the democracies, Churchill wrote to Clementine from Marrakech on 8 January 1936, 'The world seems to be divided between the confident nations who behave harshly, and the nations who have lost confidence in themselves and behave fatuously.' He still hoped that there might be a chance of entering the Cabinet, and was angered when Randolph finally decided to stand at a by-election in Scotland, at Ross and Cromarty, against Ramsay MacDonald's son Malcolm, who was already Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs in Baldwin's Cabinet.
Randolph had decided to stand entirely on his own initiative, but Churchill was worried, he told Clementine, that Baldwin might regard the contest 'as a definite declaration of war by me'. He added, 'I was reading what Marlborough wrote in 1708-"As I think most things are settled by destiny, when one has done one's best, the only thing is to await the result with patience."'
The by-election was held on February 10. Malcolm MacDonald was elected, and Randolph came third after the Labour candidate. The whole episode, wrote the Edinburgh Evening News, 'seems to be regarded as another nail in the political coffin of Mr Winston Churchill, either as a candidate for the Admiralty or Cabinet Minister charged with the Coordination of Defence services'.
The Government had become uneasy at Churchill's knowledge of British and German air strengths, and at the accuracy of his forecasts. On January 30 Hankey wrote to him to ask 'whether you are prepared to communicate in confidence any special intelligence on which your information is based'. Churchill replied that the figures he had given were 'the fruits of my judgment' and went on to remind Hankey of November 1934, 'when I drew attention to the secret growth of the German military air force, and made certain statements about its strength relative to our own. These statements were disputed by Mr Baldwin, who I presume after full consideration of all the Intelligence information at the disposal of the Air Ministry, put forward other statements. But only a few months later in the spring Mr Baldwin was forced to confess in the House of Commons that the Government with their official information were wrong, adding "we were all in it". Here then was a case in which an independent outside judgment was proved to be nearer the truth than the estimate from the Government based on all their secret sources.'
'For these reasons,' Churchill added, 'I hope you will not brush aside my minimum estimates, although they have no other foundations than my own judgment.' Unknown to Churchill, the new Secretary of State for Air, Lord Swinton, shared his anxiety that the Royal Air Force was falling behind Germany, pointing out to the Cabinet on February 10 the disadvantages of the existing air programme, and, two weeks later, proposed a new programme, whereby there would be 1,750 first-line aircraft by the year 1939. The Cabinet accepted this.
On February 10 Churchill received from Morton details of German arms production which Morton's own Intelligence unit had prepared. It was clear that Germany had decided to maintain a very high rate of arms production. Yet, unknown to Churchill, four days earlier the Cabinet had rejected the setting up of a Shadow Armaments Industry on the grounds that any interference with normal trade would 'adversely affect the prosperity of the country' and would 'attract Parliamentary criticism'. That month, however, there was a growing demand in Parliament and the newspapers for a Minister of Defence. A motion to this effect was to be put before the Commons on February 14. Three days earlier, the First Commissioner of Works, William Ormsby-Gore, wrote to Baldwin, 'I hope you will not under-rate the very strong feeling there is among many well-informed people that some drastic improvement of the existing organisation is needed.'
After the debate of February 14 Hankey wrote to the head of the Treasury, Sir Warren Fisher, 'I am afraid we have got to make some concession for a Minister of Defence. What I want is something that will work and not upset the psychology of the whole machine.' Hankey and Fisher, the two most senior civil servants, were determined that the new Minister should not be a disruptive influence. 'The Minister should be a disinterested type of man,' Fisher wrote to Neville Chamberlain on February 15, 'with no axe to grind or desire to make a place for himself.' Fisher suggested that Lord Halifax, the former Lord Irwin, would fit the position. Austen Chamberlain, however, wrote to his sister on February 15: 'In my view there is only one man who by his studies & his special abilities & aptitudes is marked out for it, & that man is Winston Churchill! I don't suppose that SB will offer it to him & I don't think that Neville would wish to have him back, but they are both wrong. He is the right man for that post, & these are such dangerous times, that consideration ought to be decisive.'
On February 23 Hoare saw Baldwin. After the meeting he explained to Neville Chamberlain that Baldwin had no intention of making Churchill Minister of Defence. 'On no account,' Hoare explained, 'would he contemplate the possibility of Winston in the Cabinet for several obvious reasons, but chiefly for the risk that would be involved by having him in the Cabinet when the question of his (SB's) successor became imminent.' Baldwin 'evidently desires above all things to avoid bringing me in,' Churchill wrote to Clementine. 'This I must now recognise.' She replied sympathetically, 'My darling, Baldwin must be mad not to ask you to help him.'
On February 29, as the discussion intensified, the magazine Cavalcade reported that even 'left-wing Conservatives, who were hostile to Winston over the India question, now take the line that if there must be a Defence Minister Winston Churchill is the man'. Two prominent Conservative backbenchers, Harold Macmillan and Lord Castlereagh, had 'whispered to the Whips that Winston Churchill is the man'.
On March 3 Churchill wrote to Clementine that Neville Chamberlain had recently told a mutual friend, 'Of course if it is a question of military efficiency, Winston is no doubt the man.' Chamberlain himself would not take the post, Churchill explained to her, 'because he sees the PM'ship not far off. Every other possible alternative is being considered & blown upon.' Some candidates were judged unsuitable because they were Peers, Hoare because of continuing public hostility to the Hoare-Laval Pact, Kingsley Wood because he hoped to be Chancellor of the Exchequer '& anyhow does not know a Lieutenant-General from a Whitehead torpedo', Sir Robert Horne because he did not wish to give up a lucrative City directorship. 'So at the end it may all come back to your poor-' and here Churchill drew a small pig. He continued: 'I do not mean to break my heart whatever happens. Destiny plays her part. If I get it, I will work faithfully before God & man for Peace, & not allow pride or excitement to sway my spirit. If I am not wanted, we have many things to make us happy.'
The Ministry of Defence, Churchill added, 'would be the heaviest burden yet. They are terribly behindhand.' On March 3, before any decision had been reached about a Ministry of Defence, the British Government published its Defence White Paper, expanding the Army, Navy and Air Force. But Swinton, in commenting on the Air Ministry's estimate of German air production reaching 1,500 by April 1937 and 2,000 at some later date, minuted on March 4: 'I feel bound to express a personal anxiety which I feel with regard to estimates of this nature, however carefully prepared. German capacity to produce aeroplanes is enormous.'
***
On March 7 Hitler sent his troops into the Rhineland, the German sovereign territory which had been demilitarised by the victorious Allies in 1919. Two days later, speaking for the Labour Party, Attlee opposed the Government's new defence proposals on the grounds that they were too bellicose. Churchill, in supporting the proposals in the Commons on March 10, set out other measures he felt were needed; industry should be prepared in such a way that it could be turned from peace to war production 'on the pressing of a button a skeleton Ministry of Munitions should be created.
Referring to the decision, announced in a sentence in the White Paper, that it was 'not possible' to recondition the Territorial Army, Churchill asked: 'Do you want anything other than this tell-tale sentence to prove that industry has not been organised? And what a discouragement to the Territorial Force, which we must exert ourselves in every way to recruit from the gallant and patriotic youth of this country, who have taken this burden on themselves, when they see that a long interval must elapse, even in times like this, before it will be possible to recondition them.'
During his speech Churchill praised the Defence White Paper as a step, albeit belated, in the right direction, and approved Neville Chamberlain's decision to set up a special Financial Committee to make sure that the money was spent wisely. 'When things are left so late as this,' he said, 'no high economy is possible. That is part of the price nations pay for being caught short. All the more must every effort be made to prevent actual waste.' Even under the increased armaments of the new White Paper, Britain was not truly safe because she lacked 'the expansive power of the industrial plant'.
Churchill added: 'There is a general impression that we are overhauling Germany now. We started late but we are making up for lost time, and every month our relative position will improve. That is a delusion. The contrary is true. All this year and probably for many months next year Germany will be outstripping us more and more. Even if our new programmes are punctually executed, we shall be relatively much worse off at the end of this year than we are now, in spite of our utmost exertions. The explanation of this grievous fact lies in the past.'
British diplomacy was already adversely affected by Britain's military weakness; on March 12, at a meeting of the Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, Churchill urged a co-ordinated plan under the League of Nations to help France challenge the German action in the Rhineland. He was answered by Hoare, who said that the nations who might participate in such a plan 'were totally unprepared from a military point of view'. That, noted one observer, 'definitely sobered them down'. On the following day, in an article in the Evening Standard, Churchill argued that the only antidote to the weakness of individual states was to re-establish 'a reign of law' in Europe. Only by such action might it be possible to stop 'the horrible, dull, remorseless drift to war in 1937 or 1938'. There was only one way to preserve peace: this was 'the assembly of overwhelming force, moral and physical, in support of international law'.
On March 14 the Government at last announced the establishment of the new Cabinet post, Minister for Co-ordination of Defence. The man chosen was the Attorney-General, Sir Thomas Inskip; Lindemann called the appointment 'the most cynical thing that has been done since Caligula appointed his horse as consul'. Sir William Goodenough, a retired Admiral, wrote to Churchill: 'That, after all the labour, this great mountain should give birth to such a small mouse as announced this morning is deeply disappointing,' and he added, 'I had-we all had-hoped for someone who would carry a torch to lead & light us on our way. The problem is essentially one to be solved by executive action. DAMN.'
In his diary, Chamberlain commented that the militarisation of the Rhineland had 'afforded an excellent reason for discarding both Winston and Sam, since both had European reputations which might make it dangerous to add them to the Cabinet at a critical moment. Inskip would create no jealousies. He would excite no enthusiasm but he would involve us in no fresh perplexities.'
Following the remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Hitler offered negotiations to settle Anglo-German differences. On March 17 the Cabinet debated the future of Britain's relations with Germany. According to the Cabinet minutes, 'our own attitude had been governed by the desire to utilise Herr Hitler's offers in order to obtain a permanent settlement'. Those who were convinced that no such 'permanent settlement' was possible with Nazi Germany turned to Churchill for leadership. Wigram, who shared the view of many in the Foreign Office that Churchill could be an effective voice against the growing German propaganda, brought with him to Chartwell in mid-March a copy of the secret final despatch of Sir Horace Rumbold, the British Ambassador to Berlin at the time Hitler had come to power. It warned of the intensity of Hitler's territorial ambitions.
Would Austria be next on the list of Hitler's advances, Churchill asked the Commons on March 26. And would Britain take the lead in establishing an 'effective union' of those States threatened by Germany? To help such a union forward, he invited the Soviet Ambassador, Ivan Maisky, to lunch with him at the beginning of April, with Sir Robert Vansittart's approval.
On April 6 the Commons debated whether to continue economic sanctions against Italy. Churchill now spoke critically of sanctions; they had failed to save Abyssinia; they had roused the antagonism of Italy, so that in future years Britain would need to maintain larger forces throughout the Mediterranean; and they had involved costly naval expenditure. In his view the policy of sanctions obscured 'a graver matter still', the German threat to Europe. 'Herr Hitler has torn up all the Treaties and garrisoned the Rhineland. His troops are there, and there they are going to stay.' In six months' time the line of new fortifications in the Rhineland would enable the German Army to attack France through Belgium and Holland. Once these two North Sea countries passed 'under German domination', Britain's own security would be at risk.
Once Germany felt strong enough to challenge France, Churchill warned, the position of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Roumania, Austria, and the Baltic States would be 'profoundly altered'. Several of these States would feel obliged to commit themselves to the German system. Others would be incorporated by force. 'Where shall we be then?' he asked, and went on to warn against any attempt by Britain to negotiate with Germany 'on behalf' of Europe. 'We have not the solidarity of conviction, nor the national defences fit for such a dominant role.'
When Hankey lunched at Chartwell on April 19, Churchill stressed the need for a Ministry of Supply or a Ministry of Munitions. 'He went out of his way,' Hankey afterwards wrote to Inskip, 'to explain that he did not want the job for himself.' Churchill also outlined to Hankey a plan, which Hankey regarded as 'fantastic', to send part of the British Fleet into the Baltic, to be based in a Russian port, to ensure permanent British naval superiority over the Germans there. He also wanted Inskip to collect all the evidence he could about Russia's military capacity as an ally.
Two days after Hankey's visit to Chartwell, Churchill was sent a secret and official letter from Reginald Leeper, head of the Information Department of the Foreign Office, asking if he would be willing to speak in public to counter German propaganda, and to explain the urgency of preserving democratic values. This was an extraordinary request from a civil servant to an opponent of the Government's policy of getting on good terms with Germany. Churchill invited Leeper to Chartwell, where Leeper explained that Vansittart felt strongly that Churchill should act as a focus of opinion among the various groups who felt that democracy had to be defended by collective security, adequate armaments, timely preparation and plain speaking.
Churchill agreed to speak for the recently created Anti-Nazi Council, which had the support of several prominent members of the Labour Party and the Trade Union movement who did not accept the Party's opposition to rearmament. He also urged the Government to take the Trade Unions into its confidence in regard to all plans to expand munitions production. To this end he proposed measures against profiteering, telling the House on April 23, 'You will not get the effective co-operation of the working people unless you can make sure that there are not a lot of greedy fingers having a rake-off.' The Government should set up either a Ministry of Supply or a Ministry of Munitions. If the required guns, shells, and 'above all' aeroplane factories could not be created under peacetime conditions, the Government should introduce 'not necessarily war conditions, but conditions which would impinge upon the ordinary daily life and business life of this country'.
Five days later, in the secrecy of the Cabinet, Inskip spoke in support of Churchill's call for a new Ministry, with powers to give priority to Government orders in connection with armaments, but Chamberlain replied that he was unwilling to set up a Ministry of Supply 'until after decisions had been reached on the major policy of the Government'.
The chasm was widening between those who believed that Hitler had no aggressive designs, and those who saw a pattern of aggression in the making. On May 4 Lord Londonderry, who had recently been in Berlin and met Hitler, wrote to Churchill: 'I should like to get out of your mind what appears to be a strong anti-German obsession'. Churchill replied that Londonderry was 'mistaken in supposing that I have an anti-German obsession', and went on to explain: 'British policy for four hundred years has been to oppose the strongest power in Europe by weaving together a combination of other countries strong enough to face the bully. Sometimes it is Spain, sometimes the French monarchy, sometimes the French Empire, sometimes Germany. I have no doubt who it is now. But if France set up to claim the over-lordship of Europe, I should equally endeavour to oppose them. It is thus through the centuries we have kept our liberties and maintained our life and power.'
Churchill went on to warn Londonderry: 'I hope you will not become too prominently identified with the pro-German view. If I read the future aright Hitler's government will confront Europe with a series of outrageous events and ever-growing military might. It is events which will show our dangers, though for some the lesson will come too late.'
Many serving officers shared Churchill's sense of urgency and, at considerable risk should they be found out, approached Churchill direct, to help him build up his arguments. The former head of the Naval Air Division at the Admiralty, Captain Maitland Boucher, sent him a seven-page note on the working of the Fleet Air Arm and its problems. Boucher stressed the lack of training facilities at aerodromes, the disruptive effect of the conflicting systems of Naval and Air Force discipline, the Air Ministry's failure to supply the Fleet Air Arm with adequate aircraft, the poor performance of the aircraft, and the 'dangerously slow' machinery of joint Admiralty and Air Ministry control. 'I do not pose as an expert on these matters,' Churchill told the Commons on May 14, 'but as one who is accustomed to judge the opinion of experts.'
On May 19, as he had been encouraged to do by his friends in the Foreign Office, Churchill spoke at the first of a series of luncheons given by the Anti-Nazi Council. Among those present was Hugh Dalton, Chairman of the National Executive of the Labour Party. Churchill suggested that they ought 'to keep some opportunity to proclaim that there are men of all classes, all sorts and conditions, all grades of human forces, from the humblest workman to the most bellicose Colonel, who occupy a common ground in resisting dangers and aggressive tyranny'. To Asquith's daughter Violet, who asked Churchill what his specific proposal might be, he replied: 'I would marshal all the countries including Soviet Russia, from the Baltic southward right round to the Belgian coast, all agreeing to stand by any victim of unprovoked aggression. I would put combined pressure on every country neighbouring Germany to subscribe to this and to guarantee a quota of armed force for the purpose.' This would ensure 'an overwhelming deterrent against aggression'.
Churchill's arguments were directed to avoiding and averting war; the allegation that he was 'in favour of war' was a 'foul charge', he told the Commons on May 21. 'Is there a man in this House who would not sacrifice his right hand here and now for the assurance that there would be no war in Europe for twenty years?'
As Churchill's influence increased, Baldwin's need to belittle his judgment grew. On May 22 Thomas Jones wrote down Baldwin's comments in his diary: 'One of these days I'll make a few casual remarks about Winston. Not a speech-no oratory-just a few words in passing. I've got it all ready. I am going to say that when Winston was born lots of fairies swooped down on his cradle with gifts-imagination, eloquence, industry, ability-and then came a fairy who said "No one person has a right to so many gifts", picked him up and gave him such a shake and twist that with all these gifts he was denied judgment and wisdom. And that is why while we delight to listen to him in this House we do not take his advice.'
Despite these strictures, Churchill's fears were shared by many of those even within Government circles. That month, Hankey was pressing the Cabinet about the deficiencies, writing to Inskip on May 22: 'I feel constrained to submit to you my concern as to the rate at which our defence programmes are proceeding. An examination of the timetable since the process of reconditioning our Defence Services was first started a year ago is not very flattering to efficiency.' Hankey emphasized that the circumstances were such 'that questions connected with Defence Programmes might, administratively, need to be dealt with on a war basis'.
That night, at Rhodes House, Oxford, Churchill reminded the assembled students and dons that when he had last spoken in Oxford, and had said that Britain must re-arm, 'I was laughed at. I said we must make ourselves safe in our island home, and then the laughter rose. I hope you have learned wisdom now.'
On May 25 a serving officer, the Director of Training at the Air Ministry, Squadron-Leader Charles Torr Anderson, went to see Churchill at Churchill's flat in Victoria, 11 Morpeth Mansions. He brought with him seventeen foolscap pages of notes to illustrate the theme that not enough was being done 'to fit the RAF for war' and a further fourteen pages of statistical information on the lack of preparedness for war as far as pilots and pilot-training were concerned.
***
That summer, working mostly at Chartwell, Churchill completed the third volume of his Marlborough biography. A young Oxford don, Bill Deakin, agreed to help him organise the enormous amount of historical material. It was a time of formidable concentration. 'I never saw him tired,' Deakin later recalled. 'He was absolutely totally organised, almost like a clock. He knew how to husband his energy, he knew how to expend it. His routine was absolutely dictatorial. He set himself a ruthless timetable every day and would get very agitated and cross if it was broken.'
Churchill would begin the working day in bed, at eight in the morning, reading the proofs of the new volume. Then he would break off to dictate his correspondence. Then he would ask Deakin to look up various facts and details, or ask Deakin to read to him the revised version of a paragraph or section. This work would go on right up until lunch. 'At luncheon he did not come downstairs until the guests were there. He would never greet them at the door.' Lunch itself was a complete break. 'His lunchtime conversation was quite magnificent,' Deakin recalled. 'After lunch, if people were there, he would cut himself off completely from politics, from writing. If he had guests he would take them round the garden. If there were no guests he would potter off into his room.'
No work would be done in the afternoon. At a certain point Churchill would lie down for a few minutes. Then, at five o'clock, he would sign the letters he had dictated in the morning, and clear any further mail that had come during the day. Still no more work would be done on the book, though Deakin might give him a memorandum on some aspect of the work: an historical controversy or suggested method of explaining a topic or factual digest. At about six he might play cards with Clementine or Randolph. At seven he would take a bath: he loved to soak in as hot a bath as possible, then scrub himself vigorously with a brush. Then he would dress for dinner, 'the event of the day' Deakin called it. 'In very good form he could hold forth on any subject-memories of Harrow, or the Western Front-depending on the guests. After the ladies had left he might sit up with his male guests until midnight. He seldom talked about the work he was doing, though he might bring out something that had interested him.'
At midnight, when the guests had left, Deakin recalled, 'then he would start work', until three or four in the morning. 'One felt so exhilarated. Part of the secret was his phenomenal power to concentrate-the fantastic power of concentrating on what he was doing-which he communicated. You were absolutely a part of it-swept into it.' During the late night work either Violet Pearman, or her deputy Grace Hamblin, who had been at Chartwell since 1932, would be on call to take dictation. The memorandum that Deakin might have given Churchill five or six hours earlier would somehow have been read, absorbed and recast. 'Now he would walk up and down the room dictating. My facts were there, but he had seen them as a politician. My memorandum was a frame. It set him off, it set off his imagination.'
***
Many of Churchill's correspondents still felt that he ought to be in the Cabinet. 'In the present posture of affairs,' he wrote to one of them on June 3, 'I have no wish whatever for office. If all our fears are groundless, and everything passes off smoothly in the next few years, as pray God indeed it may, obviously there is no need for me. If on the other hand the very dangerous times arise, I may be forced to take a part. Only in these conditions have I any desire to serve.'
That same day, ironically, Inskip wrote to Churchill to ask his advice on how better to carry out his Defence co-ordination task. Churchill replied at once with his thoughts on how Inskip should proceed. 'Your job, like Gaul, seems divided into three parts,' he wrote. '(i) Co-ordinating strategy and settling quarrels between the Services, (ii) Making sure the goods are delivered under the various programmes, and (iii) Creating the structure of War industry and its organisation.' Churchill then set out in detail how a 'powerful machine' could be set up, to grow in scope from month to month, ensuring that the supply needs of the three Services were met. 'It was my experience,' he wrote, recalling 1914, 'that while people oppose all precautions in time of peace, the very same people turn round within a fortnight of war and are furious about every shortcoming. I hope it may not be yours.'
'Personally', Churchill added, 'I sympathise with you very much in your task. I would never have undertaken such a task knowing from experience how fierce opinions become upon these subjects once the nation is alarmed. It is an awful thing to take over masses of loosely defined responsibilities.'
Inskip was indeed finding his task frustrating. At a Cabinet Committee on June 11 he argued in favour of emergency powers to enable him to make various factories turn to war production. He was supported by the Air Minister, Lord Swinton. But both Samuel Hoare, who had returned to the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty, and Neville Chamberlain argued against emergency powers. 'Germany's next forward step,' said Chamberlain, 'might not necessarily lead us into war.' The disturbance of the economy 'could only be justified by over-powering conditions'.
The desire not to disturb the economy affected all Government thinking; on June 12 the inventor of radar, Robert Watson-Watt, appealed direct to Churchill to help influence what he called 'the Air Ministry's unwillingness to take emergency measures' with regard to his work, which the Ministry had not allowed to be tested 'in conditions at all comparable to war conditions'.
In his public speeches Churchill continued to demand the introduction of greater compulsion for industry, and a more rapid improvement in the equipment and training of troops and airmen. 'I have done my best during the last three years and more,' he told his constituents on June 20, 'to give timely warning of what was happening abroad, and of the dangerous plight into which we were being led or lulled. It has not been a pleasant task. It has certainly been a very thankless task. It has brought me into conflict with many former friends and colleagues. I have been mocked and censured as a scaremonger and even as a warmonger, by those whose complacency and inertia have brought us all nearer to war and war nearer to us all. But I have the comfort of knowing that I have spoken the truth and done my duty, and as long as I have your unflinching support I am content with that. Indeed I am more proud of the long series of speeches which I have made on defence and foreign policy in the last four years than of anything I have ever been able to do, in all my forty years of public life.'
Speaking at Birchington in Kent three weeks later, Churchill quoted a statement by Inskip that Britain had 'reached the planning stage'. He then pointed out that Germany had 'finished her planning stage three years ago, and her whole industry has long been adapted on an unexampled scale for war'. It was his duty 'to keep up a remorseless pressure on the Government to face the realities of the position, and to make exertions appropriate to our needs'. This he certainly did, making full use of fortnightly articles in the Evening Standard, with a circulation in London alone of more than three million. In the Commons, however, he warned on July 20 that 'the influence of the Conservative Party machine is being used through a thousand channels' to spread the 'soporific' message that there was no need for alarm, that 'a great deal was being done' and that 'no one could do more'.
Churchill was convinced that more ought to be done; that Hitler's consolidation of power in Germany, his intensification of arms and aircraft production, and his growing pressure upon Austria and Czechoslovakia, meant that 'the whole spirit and atmosphere of our rearmament should be raised to a higher pitch', even though this would mean laying aside 'a good deal of the comfort and smoothness of ordinary life'.
Once more Churchill asked for a Secret Session of the House of Commons, but this was refused. Instead, Baldwin agreed to receive a deputation of senior Conservatives, including Churchill, Austen Chamberlain and Amery, to discuss Defence policy in secret. The meeting took place on July 28; Baldwin had Inskip with him. 'This thought preys upon me,' Churchill told them. 'The months slip rapidly by. If we delay too long in repairing our defences, we may be forbidden by superior power to complete the process.' He then went into great, and carefully worked out detail, basing himself on material brought to him by Anderson, Morton, Wigram and Watson-Watt. First, he spoke about the need to accelerate and improve pilot training, to make greater provision for the defence of London and other cities, to protect Britain's oil supply depots against German air attack, and to pursue more vigorously than was being done the development of radar, the one 'potent discovery'.
Speaking of the relative air strengths of Britain and Germany, Churchill stressed the efforts being made in Germany to train pilots and to practise 'night-flying under war conditions', and noted that 'everything turns on the intelligence, daring, the spirit and firmness of character of the Air pilots'. There should be more permanent commissions, and more university candidates should be admitted. To date, only fifty had been allowed to be commissioned each year.
Were all the squadrons in the Air Force list up to full strength, Churchill asked? 'I have heard of one that had only 30 airmen instead of 140,' and he continued, 'When such strict interpretations are put forward of first-line air strength for the purpose of comparison with Germany, it is disconcerting to hear that many of our regular squadrons, not new ones in process of formation, but regular long-formed squadrons, are far below their strength, and have a large proportion, if not the whole, of their reserve aircraft either taken away for service in the flying training schools or unprovided with the necessary equipment or even, in some cases, without engines.'
There were many worries on Churchill's mind, including the gap between the planning of an aircraft and its actual delivery, and the delay in providing spare parts. 'I may emphasise the fact', he said, 'that in this superfine sphere of the air, an aeroplane without everything is for all practical purposes an aeroplane with nothing. It may figure on your lists. It will not be a factor in actual fighting.' His conclusion was a stark one: 'I say there is a state of emergency. We are in danger as we have never been before,' not even at the height of the German submarine campaign of the First World War.
At a second meeting of the Defence Deputation on July 29, Churchill spoke of the many items of war supply, including ammunition, tanks, lorries and armoured cars, for which, he argued, 'our industry, which is so comprehensive and variegated', should be made to contribute on a substantial scale. He was worried also about the shortage of machine-guns, bombs, poison-gas, gas-masks, searchlights, trench mortars and grenades. As the Admiralty was also dependent on the War Office for such items, a shortage of any one of them 'would cause grave injury to the Navy'. On the scale Britain was then acting 'even at the end of two years the supply will be petty compared to the needs of a national war, and melancholy compared to what others have already secured in time of peace.'
Complaint was made, Churchill said, 'that the nation is unresponsive to the national needs', and that the Trade Unions were 'unhelpful'. 'We see the Socialists even voting against the Estimates'. As long as the Government assured the public there was no emergency those obstacles would continue, 'but I believe they will all disappear if the true position about foreign armaments is set before the public, and if the true position about our own condition is placed before them, not by words, not by confessions, but by actions which speak louder than words, measures of State ordering this, that and the other, by events, by facts which would make themselves felt when people see this was happening here and that happening there.'
'I do not at all ask that we should proceed to turn ourselves into a country under war conditions,' Churchill ended, 'but I believe that to carry forward our progress of munitions we ought not to hesitate to impinge to a certain percentage-25 per cent, 30 per cent-upon the ordinary industries of the country, and force them and ourselves to that sacrifice at this time.'
That day, unknown to Churchill, Inskip himself again asked the Cabinet for special powers, explaining to his colleagues that a shortage of building materials was holding up the reconditioning programme of all three Services; but his request was turned down. In replying to the deputation, Baldwin made no reference to Inskip's own appeal for special powers of the sort Churchill was advocating, nor did he answer Churchill's detailed assertions; instead, he spoke of the adverse effect on Britain's trade if the peace-time economy were to be turned even half-way towards war conditions. That was a question, he said, which he had discussed 'mainly' with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain. Both of them felt that to disturb peace-time production 'might throw back the ordinary trade of the country perhaps for many years, and damage it very seriously at a time when we might want all our credit, the credit of the country'.
Baldwin went on to raise doubts about 'the peril itself', and in particular about the possibility of a war between Britain and 'Germany alone'. He asked the deputation if they were really prepared to warn people that Germany 'is arming to fight us', and he added, 'It is not easy when you get on a platform to tell people what the dangers are.' He had tried to get people to 'sit up' to the dangers, but 'I have never quite seen the clear line by which you can approach people to scare them but not scare them into fits.'
Speaking of Hitler, Baldwin told the deputation: 'We all know the German desire, and he has come out with it in his book, to move East, and if he should move East I should not break my heart. I do not believe she wants to move West because West would be a difficult programme for her.' Baldwin's statement ended: 'I am not going to get this country into a war with anybody for the League of Nations or anybody else or for anything else. There is one danger, of course, which has probably been in all your minds-supposing the Russians and Germans got fighting and the French went in as allies of Russia owing to that appalling pact they made, you would not feel you were obliged to go and help France, would you? If there is any fighting in Europe to be done I should like to see the Bolshies and the Nazis doing it.'
When the meetings were over, Baldwin submitted the transcripts of what had been said to the Air Ministry, the Admiralty and the War Office. One of the Air Ministry's answers began bluntly, 'It is agreed that the potential air output of the British aircraft industry is not equal to the Germans.' The Air Ministry memorandum also confirmed 'the failure of the aircraft industry to keep its delivery programme.' The War Office memorandum agreed with most of Churchill's contentions in the military and industrial sphere, which it described as 'perfectly correct'. Of the problems of Home Defence, the War Office agreed 'that the present situation is unsatisfactory', and on another point it commented: 'Mr Winston Churchill has given his opinion that Germany's enormous war preparation will enable her to launch her first offensive on a 1918 scale; that this may prevent a stalemate of trench warfare; and that, therefore, we shall have no breathing space in which to organise the nation, as we did in 1915. Although no one can say whether or not this prophecy will be fulfilled, the danger that it may be fulfilled is sufficiently great to be taken into serious account.'
That August, Churchill visited the French Maginot Line defences on the border with Germany. 'The officers of the French Army are impressive by their gravity,' he wrote to Clementine. 'One feels the strength of the nation resides in its army.' In mid-September Churchill was back at Chartwell, preparing the speech he was to give in Paris, at the request of his friends at the Foreign Office, to counter German propaganda. It was in Paris, on September 24, that he set out the evils of totalitarianism and the virtues of democracy. 'How could we bear,' he asked, 'to be treated like schoolboys when we are grown-up men; to be turned out on parade by tens of thousands to march and cheer for this slogan or for that; to see philosophers, teachers and authors bullied and toiled to death in concentration camps; to be forced every hour to conceal the natural workings of the human intellect and the pulsations of the human heart? Why, I say that rather than submit to such oppression, there is no length we would not go to.'
Churchill's speech was a clarion call for the maintenance of democratic values. 'Between the doctrines of Comrade Trotsky and Dr Goebbels,' he said, 'there ought to be room for you and me, and a few others, to cultivate opinions of our own.' Aggressive action should be judged, not from the standpoint of Right and Left, but from that of right and wrong. 'We are in the midst of dangers so great and increasing, we are the guardians of causes so precious to the world, that we must, as the Bible says, "Lay aside every impediment" and prepare ourselves night and day to be worthy of the Faith that is in us.'
The Paris speech was widely reported. 'You have never done anything better,' wrote one of Churchill's former Liberal Cabinet colleagues, Herbert Fisher. The London evening newspaper, the Star, commented, 'We should like to hear Mr Churchill's defence of democracy reverberate from the sounding board of high office.'
***
On October 15, at a meeting of the Anti-Nazi Council, Churchill praised the decision of the Trades Union Congress to urge the Labour Party to support whatever rearmament was needed 'in order that free countries should not be trampled down'.
Eight days later, in a break from politics, Churchill celebrated the publication of the third volume of his Marlborough biography by sending out more than seventy inscribed copies. But there was a shadow to the celebration; a month earlier his daughter Sarah had announced her intention to marry an Austrian-born music hall comedian, Vic Oliver, who had been twice married before. There was much ribaldry in certain newspapers that Churchill was against the marriage. But Sarah was determined, and eloped to the United States, where she and Vic Oliver were married. 'I nearly wrote you a line last month and then I hesitated,' Baldwin wrote to Churchill on October 9. 'But I do want you to know that I felt with you from my heart when I read in the papers of certain domestic anxieties that must have caused you pain. I know you well enough to realise how closely these things touch you.'
Churchill, seeing Sarah's distress, gave the couple his blessing; two years later he took steps, through a senior official at the Home Office, Sir Alexander Maxwell, to ensure that his son-in-law's travel documents made it impossible for the Germans to have some claim on him as a Jew when he travelled with Sarah to New York on a German ship. 'Although in the first instance, as you may have heard,' he wrote to Maxwell, 'I opposed his marriage with my daughter, I have come to like and esteem him greatly.'
***
At its meeting on October 15 the Anti-Nazi Council had decided to set up a 'Defence of Freedom and Peace' movement whose aim was to uphold 'democratic government and public law', to resist all attacks on this freedom 'by violence at home or attack from abroad', and to join with other threatened nations 'in preserving peace and withstanding armed aggression'. Churchill told those present: 'We will make every effort in our power to rally around that Covenant all the effective aid that we can get from any quarter without respect to party or nation', and he added, 'We have the means of being the spear-point of all this vast mass of opinion which guards our rights.'
The first public meeting of the new organisation was to be held at the Albert Hall, under the public auspices of the League of Nations Union, and was intended to bring together on a single platform all those organisations which favoured collective security and rearmament. Thus the idea put to Churchill by Vansittart and Leeper at the beginning of the year became a reality. On October 21 Churchill explained to A.H. Richards, the Secretary of the Anti-Nazi Council, 'I do not contemplate the building up of a new and rival society, but only a welding together of those organisations and galvanising them into effective use.' Writing about his Labour colleagues on the Council, Churchill told Austen Chamberlain, 'I have been surprised to find the resolution and clarity of thought which has prevailed among them, and the profound sense of approaching danger.'
On November 8 Churchill was again sounding his warnings in the Commons. 'Unless there is a front against potential aggression there will be no settlement,' he said. 'All the nations of Europe will just be driven helter-skelter across the diplomatic chessboard until the limits of retreat are exhausted, and then out of desperation, perhaps in some most unlikely quarter, the explosion of war will take place, probably under conditions not very favourable to those who have been engaged in this long retreat.'
Churchill now prepared to speak in the forthcoming Defence debate. Two weeks before the debate another Air Force officer, who had just returned from a visit to Germany, Squadron-Leader Herbert Rowley, went to see him at Morpeth Mansions with details of set-backs in the British aircraft programme. On the day after Rowley's visit, the Commander of the Tank Brigade, Brigadier Percy Hobart, brought him details of deficiencies in the tank programme. The debate itself was opened, on November 11, by Inskip, who stated that Britain now possessed 960 aeroplanes available for Home Defence, and who insisted that all was proceeding well in defence preparations.
On November 12 Churchill moved an amendment stating that Britain's defences, particularly in the air, were no longer adequate for the peace, safety and freedom of the British people. There would be 'a great increase in the adverse factors' in 1937, he warned, and only 'intense efforts' could counteract them. And yet, he said, there were still serious deficiencies in the strength and weapons of many elements in the national defence, including the Territorial Army, the Regular Army and the Royal Air Force. 'The Army lacks almost every weapon which is required for the latest form of modern war. Where are the anti-tank guns, where are the short-distance wireless sets, where the field anti-aircraft guns against low-flying armoured planes?'
Speaking from personal experience about the tank as a weapon of war, Churchill told the House: 'This idea which has revolutionised the conditions of modern war, was a British idea forced on the War Office by outsiders. Let me say they would have just as hard work today to force a new idea on it. I speak from what I know. During the war we had almost a monopoly, let alone the leadership, in tank warfare, and for several years afterwards we held the foremost place. To England all eyes were turned. All that has gone now. Nothing has been done in "the years that the locust hath eaten" to equip the Tank Corps with new machines.'
Churchill then warned the MPs: 'A very long period must intervene before any effectual flow of munitions can be expected, even for the small forces of which we dispose. Still we are told there is no necessity for a Ministry of Supply, no emergency which should induce us to impinge on the normal course of trade.'
Turning to the Government's arguments for the delays in embarking upon a rearmament programme between 1933 and 1935 Churchill declared: 'I have heard it said that the Government had no mandate for rearmament until the General Election. Such a doctrine is wholly inadmissible. The responsibility of Ministers for the public safety is absolute and requires no mandate. It is in fact the prime object for which Governments come into existence. The Prime Minister had the command of enormous majorities in both Houses of Parliament ready to vote for any necessary measures of defence. The country has never yet failed to do its duty when the true facts have been put before it, and I cannot see where there is a defence for this delay.'
The Government continued to assert the danger of turning Britain 'into one vast munitions camp', Churchill pointed out. He deprecated such exaggeration, telling the House: 'The First Lord of the Admiralty in his speech the other night went even further. He said, "We are always reviewing the position." Everything, he assured us, is entirely fluid. I am sure that that is true. Anyone can see what the position is. The Government simply cannot make up their mind, or they cannot get the Prime Minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful to be impotent. So we go on preparing more months and years-precious, perhaps vital, to the greatness of Britain-for the locusts to eat. They will say to me, "A Minister of Supply is not necessary, for all is going well." I deny it. "The position is satisfactory." It is not true.'
Churchill ended his criticisms on a personal note, telling his fellow MPs: 'I have been staggered by the failure of the House of Commons to react effectively against those dangers. That, I am bound to say, I never expected. I never would have believed that we should have been allowed to go on getting into this plight, month by month and year by year, and that even the Government's own confessions of error would have produced no concentration of Parliamentary opinion and force capable of lifting our efforts to the level of emergency. I say that unless the House resolves to find out the truth for itself it will have committed an act of abdication of duty without parallel in its long history.'
The Times, so long a hostile critic of Churchill's efforts, called his speech 'brilliant'. It made many MPs increasingly uneasy that the Cabinet was not gripping the situation as it should. 'His style is more considered and slower than usual,' the National Labour MP Harold Nicolson wrote in his diary, 'but he drives his points home with a sledgehammer.'
It was Baldwin himself who replied to Churchill, seeking to explain why he had not rearmed more forcefully between the autumn of 1933 and the General Election in the summer of 1935: 'I put before the whole House my own views with an appalling frankness. You will remember at that time the Disarmament Conference was sitting in Geneva. You will remember at that time there was probably a stronger pacifist feeling running through this country than at any time since the War.' He then recalled the by-election at Fulham in the autumn of 1933, when a National Government seat had been lost to a pacifist candidate. 'My position as the leader of a great party was not altogether a comfortable one.'
Baldwin explained. 'I asked myself what chance was there-when that feeling that was given expression to in Fulham was common throughout the country-what chance was there within the next year or two for that feeling being so changed that the country would give a mandate for rearmament? Supposing I had gone to the country and said that Germany was rearming and that we must rearm, does anybody think that this pacific democracy would have rallied to that cry at that moment? I cannot think of anything that would have made the loss of the election from my point of view more certain.'
The contrast between Churchill's charges and Baldwin's explanation provoked much comment. 'I cannot recall seeing the House as a whole so uneasy,' one young Conservative MP, Patrick Donner, wrote to Churchill. Commenting on Baldwin's speech, Londonderry wrote to Churchill: 'We told him and Neville of the risks, but they were too much frightened of losing by-elections. Neville was really the villain of the piece, because he as Chancellor blocked everything on the grounds of finances.' Another Conservative MP, Sir Archibald Boyd-Carpenter, wrote: 'I must send you a few words of congratulations on your wonderful & inspiring speech yesterday. I said to myself "Thank God someone has courage" & I feel it all the more after the pathetic effort of SB which makes one feel almost ill,' Churchill replied: 'I have never heard such a squalid confession from a public man as Baldwin offered us yesterday.'
Aware of growing support among MPs for Churchill's call for greater vigilance, Baldwin agreed to receive a second Defence Deputation. Five days before the meeting, Anderson provided Churchill with the most recent summaries of German Air Force production prepared by the Air Ministry's German Intelligence Section. From this material, acquired by the Secret Service through agents in Germany, it was clear that if war became a possibility in 1937 or 1938, Britain would not have sufficient air defence to resist a sustained attack, or sufficient air power to counter-attack, or to demand a 'hands off' policy.
On the crucial question of comparative strengths, the Air Ministry estimated that the 372 British bombers which would be operational in June 1937 would have to be set against the eight hundred German bombers, quite apart from the question of whether a further eight hundred German reserve bombers could also be counted as first-line. Three days before the deputation, another person with access to classified material, Major G. P. Myers, wrote to Churchill that of eighty-nine Hawker Fury fighters ordered by the Government from General Aircraft Ltd, only twenty-three had been delivered within the contract date.
On November 23 the second Parliamentary deputation called on Baldwin to discuss the state of Britain's defences. Once again, although Inskip was present, none of the three Service Ministers, Hoare, Swinton and Duff Cooper, were at the meeting to hear the criticisms of their departments, or to answer the critics face to face. Baldwin was accompanied by Neville Chamberlain and Lord Halifax; the deputation, as before, was led by Austen Chamberlain and Lord Salisbury. As the discussion continued, it was clear that many of Churchill's fears and assertions had been admitted by the service departments. Nearly two years had passed since the 1935 election, yet the scale of arms production was still not adequate to meet a German threat in 1937 or 1938. Explaining why there could still be no rapid expansion of the Territorials for the defence of London, Inskip told the deputation, 'At present there is undoubtedly a shortage of equipment'.
The discussion of November 23, the record of which filled fifty-eight printed foolscap pages, was dominated by Churchill's continuing questioning. 'I could certainly name the number of a dozen squadrons,' he said, 'which have nothing like their proper outfit of aeroplanes. Others, where there are a great number of pilots but so few aeroplanes for them that the pilots cannot go on with the training.' The fact remained, Churchill said, 'that we have not got eighty effective Metropolitan Squadrons, or anything like that to guard us in the coming year', to which Inskip replied, 'If the emphasis is on "effective", I agree.'
***
On November 25, five days before his sixty-second birthday, Churchill received a message from his cousin Frederick Guest which told him of a breakthrough in his efforts to rally the widest possible spectrum of opinion. The message read: 'Attlee will support you on any rearmament programme. He admires & likes you. The door is open if you want to talk to him.' Buoyed up by this knowledge, Churchill prepared the major appeal which the Anti-Nazi Council had asked him to make for public unity and 'self-imposed discipline' when he spoke at the Albert Hall on December 3. But his new-found political position was momentarily weakened by a short but tempestuous episode, the Abdication crisis.
In January 1936 the Prince of Wales had succeeded his father as King. Churchill had known and been friends with the new King since his investiture as Prince of Wales twenty-five years earlier. During Edward VIII's first year on the throne, rumour had linked his name with that of Wallis Simpson, an American woman who was about to divorce her second husband. Churchill knew that Edward wanted above all else to marry Mrs Simpson once her second marriage had been set aside; this had happened at the end of October. Churchill did not at all approve of the King's choice, and supported those who were working hard behind the scenes to try to persuade Mrs Simpson to give him up. But on November 16 the King had informed Baldwin of his intention to marry her.
A constitutional crisis blew up. Baldwin, supported by the Cabinet, gave the King the choice either of giving up Mrs Simpson or abdicating. Desperate to marry, on December 2 he told Baldwin that he was prepared to choose abdication. With Baldwin's approval, Churchill had gone to see him two days later to try to persuade him not to give up the throne hastily. The King asked Churchill to get him more time to make up his mind; he wanted two weeks more 'to weigh the whole matter'. Churchill sent Baldwin a full account of his conversation with the King, and of the King's 'mental exhaustion'. The combination of public and private stresses, he pointed out, 'is the hardest of all to endure. I told the King that if he appealed to you to allow him time to recover himself and to consider now that things have reached this chaos the grave issues constitutional and personal with which you have found it your duty to confront him, you would I was sure not fail in kindness and consideration. It would be most cruel and wrong to extort a decision from him in his present state.'
Confident that Baldwin would allow the King at least a month in which to decide on what course to take, Churchill told the King: 'Your Majesty need not have the slightest fear about time. If you require time there is no force in this country which would or could deny it.' He was wrong; on Sunday December 6 Baldwin told a meeting of senior Ministers, 'This matter must be finished before Christmas.' In Neville Chamberlain's view, to wait even that long, three weeks, was impossible, as the continued uncertainty was, he warned, hurting the Christmas trade.
Unknown to Churchill, the King did not really want more time; he had decided that he would marry Mrs Simpson even if it meant giving up the throne. Churchill, however, after a meeting at Chartwell that Sunday with Archibald Sinclair and Robert Boothby, was still hopeful that the King could remain, provided he agreed publicly to a declaration, which Churchill and his two friends drafted, and sent to the King on December 6: 'The King will not enter into any contract of marriage contrary to the advice of his Ministers.'
Still believing that the King would accept this formula if he were given time to do so, on December 7 Churchill went to the Commons to ask 'that no irrevocable step will be taken before the House has received a full statement'. To his amazement there were immediate and indignant howls of derision. Cries of 'Drop it' and 'Twister' came from all parts of the House. He remained standing, trying to explain his point about giving the King a little more time to make up his mind. But the shouts of derision continued and he could not make himself heard. Walking out of the Chamber he turned angrily to Baldwin with the words, 'You won't be satisfied until you've broken him, will you?'
MPs were convinced that Churchill was trying to discredit Baldwin and lead a revolt against him. It was not so; he was only trying to make it possible for the King to give up Mrs Simpson and thus remain on the throne, thereby averting the constitutional implications of a situation whereby a Prime Minister could put pressure on a King to make so momentous a decision quickly. But the impression that Churchill had decided to use the Abdication crisis to make trouble for the Government was widespread and damaging. The Times called the episode in the Commons 'the most striking rebuff of modern Parliamentary history'. Harold Nicolson wrote in his diary that night, 'He has undone in five minutes the patient reconstruction work of two years.' On December 11 the Spectator declared, 'He has utterly misjudged the temper of the country and the temper of the House, and the reputation which he was beginning to shake off of a wayward genius unserviceable in council has settled firmly on his shoulders again.'
This was momentarily the public view, which the Government did nothing to discourage. But on the very afternoon of Churchill's humiliation in the Commons, when he spoke at a meeting of Conservative backbenchers about Air Force deficiencies, his speech, so his cousin Frederick Guest told him, was 'admirable, and very well received'. Another MP who was present at the afternoon meeting also wrote, to Inskip, that Churchill's remarks were 'well received'. Fourteen years later, Churchill himself recalled, in a letter to Brendan Bracken, that although he had been 'naturally conscious of the overwhelming opinion of its Members, that afternoon I addressed a very large gathering of the Conservative Committee on military defence, speaking I think for nearly an hour, and was listened to with the utmost attention'.
When Baldwin told the House three days later that the King had signed a Deed of Abdication, Churchill's speech, in which he stressed the danger of any further 'recrimination or controversy', was listened to with respect. 'What has been done, left undone, belongs to history,' he said, 'and to history, as far as I am concerned, it shall be left.' Amery noted in his diary, 'Winston rose in face of a hostile House and in an admirably phrased little speech executed a strategical retreat.' When Churchill spoke of how the King would be particularly remembered 'in the homes of his poorer subjects', MPs cheered his remarks. 'Dangers gather upon our path,' he said. 'We cannot afford-we have no right-to look back. We must look forward. We must obey the exhortation of the Prime Minister to look forward.' These final words were greeted with what the official Parliamentary record described as 'loud cheers'.
Writing to the Duke of Westminster a week later, Churchill confided, 'It is extraordinary how Baldwin gets stronger every time he knocks out someone or something important to our country.' To Lloyd George, who was on holiday in the West Indies, Churchill wrote on Christmas Day: 'It has been a terrible time here, and I am profoundly grieved at what has happened. I believe the Abdication to have been altogether premature and probably quite unnecessary. However, the vast majority is on the other side. You have done well to be out of it.'
On New Year's Day 1937 Churchill wrote to Bernard Baruch: 'I do not feel that my own political position is much affected by the line I took; but even if it were, I should not wish to have acted otherwise. As you know in politics I always prefer to accept the guidance of my heart to calculations of public feeling.'
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